Immunology and Infectious Disease Commons^™

Global Sphingolipid Profile Of Giardia Lamblia During Stage Differentiation: The Influence Of Sphingomyelin Abundance On Viable Cyst Production, Trevor Thomas Duarte

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

Giardia lamblia is a protozoan parasite and a major cause of the waterborne-illness, giardiasis, worldwide. Giardiasis is endemic in developing countries and is a leading cause of non-viral- and non-bacterial-associated intestinal disorders. Acute symptoms of giardiasis include diarrhea, cramps, and malabsorption. The disease is often self-limiting, although the infection can result in long-term disorders such as chronic fatigue, stunted cognitive skills, and failure to thrive even after the parasite has been cleared.

This parasite exists in two morphologic forms--infective trophozoites and transmissible, water-resistant cyst, which is passed by the fecal-oral route and is likely to be spread by contaminated drinking …

Light Stimulates The Mouse Adrenal Through A Retinohypothalamic Pathway Independent Of An Effect On The Clock In The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, Silke Kiessling, Patricia J. Sollars, Gary E. Pickard

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The brain’s master circadian pacemaker resides within the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). SCN clock neurons are entrained to the day/night cycle via the retinohypothalamic tract and the SCN provides temporal information to the central nervous system and to peripheral organs that function as secondary oscillators. The SCN clock-cell network is thought to be the hypothalamic link between the retina and descending autonomic circuits to peripheral organs such as the adrenal gland, thereby entraining those organs to the day/night cycle. However, there are at least three different routes or mechanisms by which retinal signals transmitted to the hypothalamus may be conveyed …

Dens Agenesis And Cervical Vertebral Malformation In A Labrador Retriever Puppy, Elisa Salas, Henry E. Cerny, Seth P. Harris

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Cervical vertebral malformations can cause acute or progressive pain, paralysis, and potentially death. Herein we present a case report of dens agenesis; cervical vertebral malformations of C1, C2, C6, and C7; subluxation of C1 and C2 and C4 and C5; and associated degenerative myelopathy in a 5-month-old female Labrador Retriever puppy. We additionally review current knowledge regarding pathogenesis and treatment.

Role Of Scavenger Receptor Class B Type I In Thymopoiesis, Zhong Zheng

Theses and Dissertations--Nutritional Sciences

T cells, which constitute an essential arm in the adaptive immunity, complete their development in the thymus through a process called thymopoiesis. However, thymic involution can be induced by a couple of factors, which impairs T cell functions and is slow to recover. Therefore, understanding how thymopoiesis is regulated may lead effort to accelerate thymic recovery and improve immune functions in thymocyte-depleted patients. In this project, we identified scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), a high density lipoprotein (HDL) receptor, as a novel modulator in thymopoiesis. In mice, absence of SR-BI causes a significant reduction in thymus size after puberty and a …

The Effect Of Lactic Acid On Mast Cell Function, Andrew J. Spence

Theses and Dissertations

This study shows for the first time the effect that L-(+)-lactic acid has on mast cell activation. Lactic acid is a byproduct of anaerobic glycolysis and is associated with inflammatory environments such as wounds, tumors and, asthma. In this study, pre-treatment with lactic acid altered cytokine production by bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMC). Specifically, lactic acid enhanced cytokine secretion following IgE cross-linking, but decreased IL-33 mediated cytokine production. These effects were altered by genetic background, since C57BL/6 mast cells demonstrated the aforementioned result, but lactic acid had no effect on IgE-mediated cytokine production in 129/SvJ mast cells. The affected cytokines …

Glut 4 And Insulin Resistance, Salmin Ali

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Five types of glucose transporters stimulate the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into cells such as muscle cells and adipocytes in response to insulin signaling or exercise. Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue are the main sites for glucose uptake and dispose in insulin action dependent pathway. In non-insulin stimulated condition, the GLUT4 storage vesicles stay away from the plasma membrane, so there is no GLUT4 translocation or GLUT4 mediated glucose uptake. However, in insulin stimulated state, insulin initiates insulin signaling cascade which results in rapid GLUT4 translocation and increased glucose uptake at the cell surface. Failure of the translocation …

The Impact Of Down Syndrome And Folate Depletion On Genomic Stabilizing Pathways Of Lymphoblastoid Cells, Khadijah Ibrahim Alnabbat

Wayne State University Theses

Understanding the role of nutrition plays in Down syndrome (DS) could help in the development and implementation of strategies that help overcome the negative consequences phenotypes of Down syndrome. Conserving genome integrity is crucial for cells to survive, and thus understanding how genetic defects induce damage to genomic DNA and impair subsequent repair of this damage is important. Evidence accumulated points to increased DNA damage and mutation accumulation associated with a decline in DNA repair capacity, Base Excision Repair (BER) in particular. Thus, the successful clinical management of DS resides in understanding the metabolic imbalance provoked by overexpression of genes …

Regulation Of Immune Response Genes By Vitamin D In Mammary Epithelial Cells With An Emphasis On Cd14, Katrina Marie Simmons

Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)

Vitamin D is primarily known for its role in bone health, however recently vitamin D has been identified as a potent immunomodulator. Most research studying the effects of vitamin D on immune properties have focused on immune cells. Few have evaluated how vitamin D affects the immune functions of barrier epithelial cells, such as human mammary epithelial (HME) cells, that are exposed to pathogens both locally and systemically. The goals of the studies described in this thesis were to comprehensively and mechanistically evaluate the immune effects of vitamin D metabolites, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25D) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25D), on HME cells. …

Resurrection And Redescription Of Varestrongylus Alces (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae), A Lungworm Of The Eurasian Moose (Alces Alces), With Report On Associated Pathology, Guilherme G. Verocai, Eric P. Hoberg, Turid Vikøren, Kjell Handeland, Bjørnar Ytrehus, Andrew M. Rezansoff, Rebecca K. Davidson, John S. Gilleard, Susan J. Kutz

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Background: Varestrongylus alces, a lungworm in Eurasian moose from Europe has been considered a junior synonym of Varestrongylus capreoli, in European roe deer, due to a poorly detailed morphological description and the absence of a type-series.

Methods: Specimens used in the redescription were collected from lesions in the lungs of Eurasian moose, from Vestby, Norway. Specimens were described based on comparative morphology and integrated approaches. Molecular identification was based on PCR, cloning and sequencing of the ITS-2 region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. Phylogenetic analysis compared V. alces ITS-2 sequences to these of other Varestrongylus species …

Novel Gammaherpesvirus Functions 1 Encoded By Bovine Herpesvirus (Bovine Lymphotropic Virus), J. Jia, G. Delhon, E. R. Tulman, D. G. Diel, Fernando A. Osorio, X. Wen, G. F. Kutish, D. L. Rock

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The genus Macavirus of the subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae includes viruses that infect lymphoid cells of domestic and wild ruminants and swine, causing asymptomatic latent infections in reservoir hosts. Here, we describe the genome of bovine herpesvirus 6 (BoHV-6), a

macavirus ubiquitous in healthy cattle populations. The BoHV-6 genome exhibited architecture conserved in macaviruses, including a repetitive H-DNA region and unique, 141 kilobase pair L

DNA region predicted to encode 77 genes. BoHV-6 encoded in variable genomic regions a novel complement of genes relative to other characterized macaviruses, likely contributing to distinctive aspects of BoHV-6 infection biology and host range. Most notably, …

Differentiation Of U-937 Monocytes To Macrophage-Like Cells Polarized Into M1 Or M2 Phenotypes According To Their Specific Environment: A Study Of Morphology, Cell Viability, And Cd Markers Of An In Vitro Model Of Human Macrophages, Fatma Husien S. Abdulhadi

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In this study, the human leukemic monocyte lymphoma cell line U-937 was used as an in vitro model for monitoring monocyte/macrophage differentiation. Phorbol 12- myristate (13) (PMA) was used to activate U-937 cells into macrophage-like cells (M0). After 24 hours of PMA treatment, non- adherent U-937 cells became tightly adherent to the culture plates forming M0 cells. M0 cells were then polarized into the M1 macrophage phenotype by treatment with LPS and IFN-γ for another 24 hours. Each of the cytokines IL-4, IL-13, or IL-10 was applied separately to three M0 cultures for 24 hours to induce the M2 macrophage …

Modulation Of Vaccine-Induced Responses By Anthelmintic Treatment In Ponies, Emily Rubinson

Theses and Dissertations--Medical Sciences

Vaccines and anthelmintics induce an inflammatory response in equids. Since they are commonly given concurrently, it is practical to study any interaction between them. This study evaluated whether IVM and PYR would modulate the acute phase inflammatory response, the systemic gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and vaccine-specific titers induced by WNV, EHV, and KLH vaccines. Naturally-infected, yearling ponies were sorted by gender, then fecal epgs. They were randomly assigned to three treatment groups: IVM, PYR, and control. All ponies received vaccinations intramuscularly on days 0 and 29. Whole blood, serum, and plasma samples were collected 1, 3, and 14 days …

Role Of Viral And Host Factors In Influenza Virus Mediated Inhibition Of Interleukin-23, Ashish Tiwari

Theses and Dissertations--Veterinary Science

Influenza virus is one of the major respiratory pathogens of humans as well as animals, including equines. There is an increasing evidence that bacterial infections are the most common cause of the death during influenza. In horses also, secondary bacterial pneumonia can lead to death, and surviving horses may take up to six months for the complete recovery resulting in heavy economic loss to the equine industry. Interleukin (IL)-23 mediated innate immune response has been shown to protect the host from various respiratory bacterial infections. However, studies to investigate the role of host and viral factors in the regulation of …

The Modulation Of Mucosal Immune Markers, Urs, And Psychological Parameters Following Acute And Chronic Exercise, Carole Ann Sloan

Wayne State University Dissertations

The purpose of this dissertation was to evaluate changes in two antimicrobial markers, upper respiratory symptom (URS) variables, and mood state following participation in an acute (N = 93) and chronic (N = 88) observational study of college aerobic exercise, yoga exercise, and non-exercise classes.

METHODS: Unstimulated whole saliva was collected pre/post-acute (50 minutes) and pre/midpoint/post-chronic (12 weeks) during the study period. Saliva was analyzed for salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and salivary alpha amylase (SAA) using protocols and assay kits by Salimetrics, upper respiratory symptoms (URS) were evaluated using the Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS), and mood states were …

Socs1/Socs3 Expression And Virus Replication Of Denv2 And Hsv-1 In Cytokine-Polarized Subsets Of Raw 264.7 Macrophages, Nagarjuna Reddy Cheemarla

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Cytokine activation of macrophages leads to "macrophage polarizatio" The M1 subset is polarized by exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and M2 polarized cells develop after exposure to interleukin-4 (IL-4) or IL-13. In this study, the RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cell line was used to study the effect herpes simplex virus-Type I (HSV-1) and Dengue virus serotype-2 (DENV2) infections have on cultures of unpolarized (M0) or polarized subsets. The macrophage subsets were characterized using cluster of differentiation markers CD14 and CD86. Uninfected M1 macrophages showed up regulation in expression of the co-stimulatory factor B7.2 (CD86) compared to expression by …

Development Of A Co-Culture System To Mimic The Transfection Of Hsv-1 From Keratinocytes To Neuronal Cells, David A. Dixon

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To more closely mimic the in vivo progression of HSV-1 a novel in vitro method was created. In this study HEL-30 keratinocytes were infected with a 0.1 MOI of HSV-1 and plated unto a membrane with 8μm diameter pores. The membrane insert was then placed into culture wells that contained Neuro-2a cells (N2A). The neurites from the neuronal cells made cell-to-cell contact with the infected HEL-30 cells and the virus was transmitted into the neuronal cells. To determine if infection occurred in the N2A cells the cells were lysed and the lysate incubated with Vero cells to titrate virus plaque …

White Blood Cell Counts, Parasite Prevalence, And Plasma Cortisol Levels Of Dogs In A County Animal Shelter: Changes Over Days And Impact Of A Program Of Repeated Human Interaction, Emily S. Dudley

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Animal shelter housing is highly stressful for a dog, compromising welfare and leading to undesirable behaviors and unknown health consequences. We documented the changes in circulating numbers of white blood cells, plasma cortisol, and fecal parasite shedding of dogs housed for 10 days at a county animal shelter. White blood cell changes were most prominent on Day 10 after arrival to the shelter. Changes included increased total leukocytes, mature neutrophils, and lymphocytes, with less consistent increases in monocytes and neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (N:L). Fecal parasite shedding was elevated and not affected by day. Cortisol levels of shelter dogs declined …

Identification Of The Sites Of Action Of Inhibitors Of Mammalian Phospholipase D2 (Pld2) And The Role Of Interacting Protein Partners, Ramya Ganesan

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Phospholipase D (PLD) is a key enzyme for the remodeling of phospholipids in the cell membrane. PLD has been implicated in many physiological functions such as chemotaxis and phagocytosis as well as pathological functions such as ischemia/reperfusion and cancer metastasis. Several small molecule inhibitors of PLD have been recently developed to overcome these pathological effects. We have concentrated on 5-Fluoro-2-Indolyl des-Chlorohalopemide (FIPI) which is an indole derivative of halopemide that inhibits the two mammalian isoforms PLD1 and PLD2. We also concentrate on N-[2-[1-(3-Fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-1,3,-8-triazaspiro[4.5]dec-8-yl]ethyl]-2-naphthalenecarboxamide (NFOT) and N-[2-(4-oxo-1-phenyl-1,3,8-triazaspiro[4,5]dec-8-yl)ethyl]-2-naphthalenecarboxamide (NOPT) that are specific inhibitors of the PLD2 isoform. In spite of knowing their …

Comparison Between Flow Cytometry And Bead Method In Counting Cd4 And Cd8 T Lymphocytes In Mouse Spleen Cells Suspension, Abdulrahman Abdalla Allabidi

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The flow cytometry is gold standard method to count CD4, CD8 human T lymphocytes, and calculate CD8 to CD4 ratio in HIV patients peripheral blood to stage them and monitor their response to treatment. In this study, a comparison was made by counting CD4and CD8 mouse spleen T lymphocytes by flow cytometry, and a method involving antibody coated latex beads. The bead method yielded results comparable to those obtained by flow cytometry. These results indicate that antibody coated beads are suitable to determine CD4 and CD8 + T lymphocytes counts in situation where flow cytometry is not readily available.

Effect Of Herpes Simplex Virus-1 On Macrophage Cd Marker Expression, Hind Obaid Albeshri

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Macrophages are specialized phagocytic cells derived from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Macrophages can assume M1 or M2 cellular states upon activation with specific cytokines. Upon activation, macrophages produce either pro- or anti- inflammatory cytokines and thereby perform their functions of antigen engulfment and debris clearance. Macrophages have several cell surface cluster differentiation (CD) markers including CD80, CD163 and CD200R that differentiate M1 macrophages from M2. Downstream signaling and cytokine production varies based on the interaction between the specific CD marker and antigen.

The present study was aimed at analyzing and comparing the effects of HSV-1 infection on un-polarized and …

Elucidating The Effects Of Tcdd On The Polymorphic Human Hs1,2 Enhancer, Abdullah Freiwan

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2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is a potent environmental toxin known to inhibit immunoglobulin (Ig) gene expression in various animal studies. We have identified the mouse 3'Ig heavy chain regulatory region (3'IgH RR) as a sensitive transcriptional target of TCDD, which may mediate the inhibitory effect of TCDD on Ig expression. Interestingly, the human hs1,2 enhancer is polymorphic and has been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases.

Suggesting a species difference, TCDD inhibited mouse hs1,2 enhancer activation and activated basal human hs1,2 (hs-hs1,2) enhancer activity in the mouse B-cell line. The objective of this study was to elucidate the effects of TCDD …

Adeno-Associated Virus (Aav) Transduction Of Primary Human Cd4+T Lymphocytes, Sahar Hussein Kamel

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Development of latent HIV-infected CD4+ T lymphocytes is the major cause of HIV treatment failure. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is an attractive vector for anti-HIV gene therapy due to its lack of pathogenicity, low immunogenicity, and persistent transgene expression. However, a major limitation for AAV gene transfer is the cell-specific tropism of each serotype. Only AAV serotypes 2 and 5 have been investigated in hematopoietic cells, both of these serotypes have shown low transduction efficiency. Since each of the currently described AAV serotypes demonstrate distinct tissue tropism, I hypothesized that other serotypes such as AAV1, 4, 8, or 9 may demonstrate …

Expression Of The Alpha, Beta, And Gamma Subunits Of The Interleukin-2 Receptor By Human Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells, Sultan Mohammed Alhayyani

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Interleukin 2 (IL-2) is a member of the cytokine family and contributes to the proliferation, survival, and death of lymphocytes [1]. The interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2) is a tripartite receptor commonly expressed on the surfaces of many lymphoid cells and is composed of three non-covalently associated subunits, alpha (CD25), beta (CD122), and gamma (CD132) [2]. Our laboratory has previously described IL-2 receptor Beta expression by vasculature smooth muscle cells (VSMC) in mice and humans [3]. The current work expands our previous observations by assessing the expression of the alpha and gamma subunits of the IL-2R by VSMCs. Analysis of IL-2R expression …

Pentastomids Of Wild Snakes In Australia, Crystal Kelehear, David M. Spratt, Denis O'Meally, Richard Shine

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

Pentastomids are endoparasites of the respiratory system of vertebrates, maturing primarily in carnivorous reptiles. Adult and larval pentastomids can cause severe pathology resulting in the death of their intermediate and definitive hosts. The study of pentastomids is a neglected field, impaired by risk of zoonoses, difficulties in species identification, and life cycle complexities. We surveyed wild snakes in the tropics of Australia to clarify which host species possess these parasites, and then sought to identify these pentastomids using a combination of morphological and molecular techniques. We detected pentastomid infections in 59% of the 81 snakes surveyed. The ubiquity of pentastomid …

Seussapex, A New Genus Of Lecanicephalidean Tapeworm (Platyhelminthes: Cestoda) From The Stingray Genus Himantura (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) In The Indo-West Pacific With Investigation Of Mode Of Attachment, Kirsten Jensen, Shelbi L. Russell

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

A new lecanicephalidean genus, Seussapex gen. n., is erected for specimens collected from stingrays from the Indo-West Pacific resembling the little known species Tenia [sic] narinari MacCallum, 1917 from the spotted eagle ray, Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen). Members of this new genus are unique in their possession of a multi-tiered apical structure comprising a bipartite apical modification of the scolex proper, and an externally bipartite apical organ with anterior and posterior glandular compartments internally. The appearance of the scolex varies dramatically depending on state of protrusion and/or evagination of these different parts which appear to be able to function independently. Seussapex …

On The Helminth Fauna Of Small Mammals In Hustai National Park, Mongolia, Sumiya Ganzorig, Nyamsuren Batsaikhan, Katsuro Hagiwara, Scott Lyell Gardner, Kenji Baba, Buho Hoshino

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Introduction

The Hustai National Park is one of the special protected areas in Mongolia. The park is famous by the successful re-introduction of the wild horse (takhi), and its well-managed protection work. The park has a rich and diverse mammal fauna and flora. Of these, the takhi, and other large mammal species are objects of intensive research by the international researchers, but the parasitic helminth fauna in Hustai National Park is remained unknown. Species diversity of wildlife and its abundance, especially high density of both the prey and predators, might allow the presence of various parasitic and symbiotic organisms on …

Altered Entrainment To The Day/Night Cycle Attenuates The Daily Rise In Circulating Corticosterone In The Mouse, Patricia J. Sollars, Michael J. Weiser, Andrea E. Kudwa, Jayne R. Bramley, Malcolm D. Ogilvie, Robert L. Spencer, Robert J. Handa, Gary E. Pickard

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a circadian oscillator entrained to the day/night cycle via input from the retina. Serotonin (5-HT) afferents to the SCN modulate retinal signals via activation of 5-HT_1B receptors, decreasing responsiveness to light. Consequently, 5-HT_1B receptor knockout (KO) mice entrain to the day/night cycle with delayed activity onsets. Since circulating corticosterone levels exhibit a robust daily rhythm peaking around activity onset, we asked whether delayed entrainment of activity onsets affects rhythmic corticosterone secretion. Wheel-running activity and plasma corticosterone were monitored in mice housed under several different lighting regimens. Both duration of the light:dark cycle (T …

Sumoylation Differentially Regulates Sp1 To Control Cell Differentiation, Lili Gong, Wei-Ke Ji, Xiao-Hui Hu, Wen-Feng Hu, Xiang-Cheng Tang, Zhao-Xia Huang, Ling Li, Mugen Liu, Shi-Hua Xiang, Erxi Wu, Zachary Woodward, Yi-Zhi Liu, Quan Dong Nguyen, David Wan-Cheng Li

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The mammalian small ubiquitin-like modifiers (SUMOs) are actively involved in regulating differentiation of different cell types. However, the functional differences between SUMO isoforms and their mechanisms of action remain largely unknown. Using the ocular lens as a model system, we demonstrate that different SUMOs display distinct functions in regulating differentiation of epithelial cells into fiber cells. During lens differentiation, SUMO1 and SUMO2/3 displayed different expression, localization, and targets, suggesting differential functions. Indeed, overexpression of SUMO2/3, but not SUMO1, inhibited basic (b) FGF-induced cell differentiation. In contrast, knockdown of SUMO1, but not SUMO2/3, also inhibited bFGF action. Mechanistically, specificity protein 1 …

In Situ Detection Of Autoreactive Cd4 T Cells In Brain And Heart Using Major Histocompatibility Complex Class Ii Dextramers, Chandirasegaran Massilamany, Arunakumar Gangaplara, Ting Jia, Christian Elowsky, Qingsheng Li, You Zhou, Jay Reddy

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

This report demonstrates the use of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II dextramers for detection of autoreactive CD4 T cells in situ in myelin proteolipid protein (PLP) 139-151-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in SJL mice and cardiac myosin heavy chain-α (Myhc) 334-352-induced experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) in A/J mice. Two sets of cocktails of dextramer reagents were used, where dextramers+ cells were analyzed by laser scanning confocal microscope (LSCM): EAE, IAs/PLP 139-151 dextramers (specific)/anti- CD4 and IAs/Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) 70-86 dextramers (control)/anti-CD4; and EAM, IAk/Myhc 334-352 dextramers/ anti-CD4 and IAk/bovine ribonuclease (RNase) 43-56 dextramers (control)/anti-CD4. LSCM analysis of …

Generation Of Calves Persistently Infected With Hobi-Like Pestivirus And Comparison Of Methods For Detection Of These Persistent Infections, F. V. Bauermann, S. M. Falkenberg, B. Vander Ley, N. Decaro, Bruce W. Brodersen, A. Harmon, B. Hessman, E. F. Flores, J. F. Ridpath

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The identification and elimination of persistently infected (PI) cattle are the most effective measures for controlling bovine pestiviruses, including bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and the emerging HoBi-like viruses. Here, colostrum-deprived calves persistently infected with HoBi-like pestivirus (HoBi-like PI calves) were generated and sampled (serum, buffy coat, and ear notches) on the day of birth (DOB) and weekly for 5 consecutive weeks. The samples were subjected to diagnostic tests for BVDV—two reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) assays, two commercial real-time RT quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), two antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ACE), and immunohistochemistry (IHC)—and to HoBi-like virus-specific RT-PCR and RT-qPCR assays. …