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Immunology and Infectious Disease Commons™
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Articles 1 - 30 of 74
Full-Text Articles in Immunology and Infectious Disease
Testing Strategies To Develop A Mucosal T Cell Inducing Vaccine For Hiv-1, Reynolds Boone
Testing Strategies To Develop A Mucosal T Cell Inducing Vaccine For Hiv-1, Reynolds Boone
Master's Theses
Despite numerous efforts, HIV vaccine is still not available. Because HIV Envelop protein varies among subtypes and isolates, it is impossible for one vaccine against HIV Env to induce neutralizing antibodies against all subtypes and isolates. Previous vaccine attempts inducing HIV-specific CD4+ T cells have even been shown to enhance the HIV infection because HIV preferentially infects activated CD4+ T cells. It is known that CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) play an important role in controlling HIV infections. We hypothesize that a vaccine inducing only CD8+ CTLs but not CD4+ T cells will be effective in preventing HIV infections. Thus, …
The Anti-Inflammatory Properties Of Exopolysaccharide From Bacillus Subtilis, Nikolay Todorov
The Anti-Inflammatory Properties Of Exopolysaccharide From Bacillus Subtilis, Nikolay Todorov
Master's Theses
Commensal microorganisms can be used therapeutically to ameliorate a variety of diseases. The laboratory of Dr. Katherine L. Knight studies these therapeutic properties in the commensal microorganism known as Bacillus subtilis. Previously, the Knight lab has demonstrated that B. subtilis can protect against colitis caused by Citrobacter rodentium suggesting that B. subtilis possesses anti-inflammatory properties. These properties are specific to the polysaccharide capsule of the microorganism known as exopolysaccharide or EPS. EPS can be produced and purified for study. EPS has been demonstrated to be protective in a variety of diseases such as allergic eosinophilia, sepsis, Graft versus Host disease, …
Characterization Of Cd11c-Expressing Gut-Associated T Cells, Ana Cvetkovic
Characterization Of Cd11c-Expressing Gut-Associated T Cells, Ana Cvetkovic
Master's Theses
Our immune system is a remarkable defense network that protects our bodies from a range of threats. Its’ intricate machinery comprises of messenger and effector cells that work together to coordinate an effective immune response. Traditionally, T lymphocytes have been considered effectors: they receive instructions from messengers, known as Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs), that alter T-cell activation state and behavior. In the gut, Dendritic Cells (DCs) are the APCs that most often instruct T cells. To accomplish their messenger role, DCs express CD11c at high levels, a surface marker involved in cell-to-cell signaling and phagocytosis. As such, CD11c expression has …
In Silico Binding Of 2-Aminocyclobutanones To Sars-Cov-2 Nsp13 Helicase And Demonstration Of Antiviral Activity, Thahani S. Habeeb Mohammad, Yash Gupta, Cory T. Reidl, Vlad Nicolaescu, Haley Gula, Ravi Durvasula, Prakasha Kempaiah, Daniel P. Becker Ph.D.
In Silico Binding Of 2-Aminocyclobutanones To Sars-Cov-2 Nsp13 Helicase And Demonstration Of Antiviral Activity, Thahani S. Habeeb Mohammad, Yash Gupta, Cory T. Reidl, Vlad Nicolaescu, Haley Gula, Ravi Durvasula, Prakasha Kempaiah, Daniel P. Becker Ph.D.
Chemistry: Faculty Publications and Other Works
The landscape of viral strains and lineages of SARS-CoV-2 keeps changing and is currently dominated by Delta and Omicron variants. Members of the latest Omicron variants, including BA.1, are showing a high level of immune evasion, and Omicron has become a prominent variant circulating globally. In our search for versatile medicinal chemistry scaffolds, we prepared a library of substituted α-aminocyclobutanones from an α-aminocyclobutanone synthon (11). We performed an in silico screen of this actual chemical library as well as other virtual 2-aminocyclobutanone analogs against seven SARS-CoV-2 nonstructural proteins to identify potential drug leads against SARS-CoV-2, and more broadly against coronavirus …
Lactobacillus Metabolite Nc As An Inflammation Inhibitor, Drew Hahnnah Landrowski
Lactobacillus Metabolite Nc As An Inflammation Inhibitor, Drew Hahnnah Landrowski
Master's Theses
The human body contains a diverse ecosystem of microbes. Commensal bacteria have numerous mutually-beneficial relationships with their host. Not only do they assist in digestion and gut homeostasis, they are critical for development and function of the immune system. As such, hosts and microbes alike have evolved mechanisms to foster symbiosis. Gut barrier function, toll-like receptor signaling, and metabolites are all examples of how hosts interact with microbes to promote this mutually-beneficial relationship. Metabolites from commensal bacteria promote the generation of regulatory T-cells, capable of ameliorating inflammation. A number of inflammatory, allergic, and autoimmune conditions are associated with dysbiosis. Therefore, …
Elucidating The Mechanisms Underlying How Vmp1 Regulates Inflammatory Responses, Stephanie Zack
Elucidating The Mechanisms Underlying How Vmp1 Regulates Inflammatory Responses, Stephanie Zack
Dissertations
autophagy, inflammation, mitochondria, NLRP3 inflammasome, SERCA, VMP1
Elucidating The Mechanisms Of Immune Regulation By Bacillus Subtilis, Jesus Zamora-Pineda
Elucidating The Mechanisms Of Immune Regulation By Bacillus Subtilis, Jesus Zamora-Pineda
Dissertations
bacillus subtilis, exopolysaccharides, inflammation, probiotics, tlr4
B Cells In The Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue (Galt), Ameera Bukhari
B Cells In The Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue (Galt), Ameera Bukhari
Dissertations
The gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) is the largest mass of lymphoid tissue in the body, and it is a unique line of defense where immune cells are in constant contact with gut commensals and pathogens. B lymphocytes constitute most of the lymphatic tissues of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and they play a critical role in protecting from infections, promoting tolerance, and shaping microbiota in the gut through the production of immunoglobulins (Ig). Previous studies on GALT B cells in human showed that large B cell clones in the body partition into two broad networks: one includes the blood, bone marrow, …
The Role Of Ly49 Receptors In Maintaining Healthy Murine Pregnancy, Michelle Belmont
The Role Of Ly49 Receptors In Maintaining Healthy Murine Pregnancy, Michelle Belmont
Master's Theses
Natural Killer (NK) cells are abundant in pregnancy and contribute to the health of the fetus. Uterine NK (uNK) cells provide less cytotoxic function than their conventional NK (cNK) cell counterparts. Various combinations of Killer Immunoglobulin Receptor (KIR)- Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) on maternal NK and fetally derived cells, respectively, can have different effects on the health of pregnancy in humans. Murine NK cells contain Ly49 receptors, an equivalent to KIRs. Therefore, Ly49 receptor interactions with fetally-derived MHC-I molecules can be a valuable model for studying the role of NK cells in pregnancy. The process of spiral artery remodeling can …
Phenotypic Analysis Of Murine Gut Associated Lymphocytes, Madison Flood
Phenotypic Analysis Of Murine Gut Associated Lymphocytes, Madison Flood
Master's Theses
γδ T cells are important in the role of immune homeostasis, especially in relation to the gut. It has been shown that there is a higher proportion of γδ T cells in the intestines than in circulation. With this knowledge, our lab focused on understanding the mechanisms of these cells, specifically regarding immune tolerance. In our preliminary research, we identified a subset of γδ T cells that express Foxp3, a transcription factor essential for the functioning of regulatory T cells, in the neonatal (5 day old) intestine. We hypothesized that these Foxp3+ γδ T cells have immunosuppressive functions upon exposure …
Bisindolylmaleimide Ix: A Novel Anti-Sars-Cov2 Agent Targeting Viral Main Protease 3clpro Demonstrated By Virtual Screening Pipeline And In-Vitro Validation Assays, Yash Gupta, Dawid Maciorowski, Samantha E. Zak, Krysten A. Jones, Rahul S. Kathayat, Saara-Anne Azizi, Raman Mathur, Catherine M. Pearce, David J. Ilc, Hamza Husein, Andrew S. Herbert, Ajay Bharti, Brijesh Rathi, Ravi Durvasula, Daniel P. Becker, Bryan C. Dickinson, John M. Dye, Prakasha Kempaiah
Bisindolylmaleimide Ix: A Novel Anti-Sars-Cov2 Agent Targeting Viral Main Protease 3clpro Demonstrated By Virtual Screening Pipeline And In-Vitro Validation Assays, Yash Gupta, Dawid Maciorowski, Samantha E. Zak, Krysten A. Jones, Rahul S. Kathayat, Saara-Anne Azizi, Raman Mathur, Catherine M. Pearce, David J. Ilc, Hamza Husein, Andrew S. Herbert, Ajay Bharti, Brijesh Rathi, Ravi Durvasula, Daniel P. Becker, Bryan C. Dickinson, John M. Dye, Prakasha Kempaiah
Chemistry: Faculty Publications and Other Works
SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19 consists of several enzymes with essential functions within its proteome. Here, we focused on repurposing approved and investigational drugs/compounds. We targeted seven proteins with enzymatic activities known to be essential at different stages of the viral cycle including PLpro, 3CLpro, RdRP, Helicase, ExoN, NendoU, and 2′-O-MT. For virtual screening, energy minimization of a crystal structure of the modeled protein was carried out using the Protein Preparation Wizard (Schrodinger LLC 2020-1). Following active site selection based on data mining and COACH predictions, we performed a high-throughput virtual screen of drugs and investigational molecules (n = …
Investigating The Effects Of Tgf-Β On T Cell Activation-Induced Cell Death, Christina Rose Cunha
Investigating The Effects Of Tgf-Β On T Cell Activation-Induced Cell Death, Christina Rose Cunha
Dissertations
Achieving immune homeostasis requires the functions and numbers of suppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs) and effector conventional T cells (conv T) to be balanced and precisely controlled. A decrease in Treg numbers is associated with autoimmune diseases such as type I diabetes and multiple sclerosis, while Treg numbers are increased in the tumor microenvironment. Conversely, an increase in conv inflammatory T cells in the tumor microenvironment is associated with better outcomes for cancer patients. Thus, maintaining the appropriate balance between Treg and conventional T cell populations is essential for controlling immune responses against non-self and self-antigens, as well as tumor …
Molecular Determinants Of Fetal Tolerance And The Transition To Adult Immunity, Yi Wei Lim
Molecular Determinants Of Fetal Tolerance And The Transition To Adult Immunity, Yi Wei Lim
Dissertations
The perinatal immune system is highly tolerogenic and is phenotypically and functionally distinct from the adult immune system. This tolerogenic nature is a double-edged sword for newborns. While it is beneficial to prevent excessive inflammation against the vast array of foreign antigens encountered after birth, it also causes a lack of immune responses to life-threatening infections. My dissertation research aims to investigate the mechanisms by which perinatal T cells contribute to immune tolerance in infants. A deeper understanding of the nature of the perinatal immune system will provide pivotal knowledge to develop safe and effective strategies to protect infants from …
Analysis Of Regulatory Mechanisms For T Cell Activation, Aleksandra Vuchkovska
Analysis Of Regulatory Mechanisms For T Cell Activation, Aleksandra Vuchkovska
Dissertations
The primary function of the immune system is to seek and eliminate altered or unhealthy cells. T cells are a major component of the immune response and mediate their functions by recognizing specific antigens that allow elimination of infected or neoplastic cells. To avoid inappropriate activation and subsequent immune injuries, T cells have evolved strategies to discriminate self from non-self, or healthy from altered and infected. These strategies rely on the activation of receptors that restrict the T cell response. CD33rSiglecs are a family of mostly inhibitory receptors that bind to sialic acids. Siglecs respond to specific sialic acid patterns …
Plasmodium Tlap-2 Is A Microtubule-Associated Protein With Microtubule Stabilization Properties, Grifin Berge
Plasmodium Tlap-2 Is A Microtubule-Associated Protein With Microtubule Stabilization Properties, Grifin Berge
Master's Theses
Microtubules facilitate major cellular and morphological changes in eukaryotic cells, including the protozoan parasite Plasmodium. Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), only very few of which have been characterized in the malaria parasite, regulate the highly dynamic microtubules. Thioredoxin-like associated protein 2 (TLAP2) is a MAP unique to the phylum apicomplexa, which in addition to Plasmodium includes the important human pathogen Toxoplasma. Here we report on the cloning and microtubule-binding activity of TLAP2 of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei (PbTLAP2). PbTLAP2 is coded by a single exon gene and consists of 598 amino acids. The protein contains a putative C-terminal microtubule-binding domain. …
Suffocated Cd8 T Cells In The Hypoxic Tumor Microenvironment, Lourdes Beatriz Plaza Rojas
Suffocated Cd8 T Cells In The Hypoxic Tumor Microenvironment, Lourdes Beatriz Plaza Rojas
Dissertations
Hypoxia is a common feature of solid tumors that plays an important role in angiogenesis, malignant progression and metastatic development. However, its impact on T cell anti-tumor responses is less known. We determined that CD8 tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) tend to localize to non-hypoxic tumor areas, suggesting a susceptibility to tumor-associated hypoxia. This led us to further study the effects of hypoxia in vitro by culturing spleen-derived mouse T cells in a humidified chamber at 0.5% O2, 5% CO2 and 37 °C. We found that T cell proliferation and effector function are reduced by hypoxia, severely affecting inflammatory cytokine production. …
Developing Caspase-1 Biosensors To Monitor Inflammation In Vitro And In Vivo, Sarah Talley
Developing Caspase-1 Biosensors To Monitor Inflammation In Vitro And In Vivo, Sarah Talley
Dissertations
Inflammation is central to the pathogenesis of numerous human diseases. in many contexts, inflammation drives immune responses which are critical to protection against many pathogens. However, uncontrolled inflammation can drive the pathology of numerous diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, intestinal disorders, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. a primary mediator of inflammation is the inflammasome complex, which drives the release of inflammatory mediators through caspase-1 activation. Our goal was to develop a tool that would allow us to monitor caspase-1 activation in vitro and ultimately in vivo. to this end, we employed a circularly permuted form of luciferase in which the N- and …
Transforming Growth Factor Beta Suppression Of Cd8+ T Cell Proliferation, Shena Geisinger
Transforming Growth Factor Beta Suppression Of Cd8+ T Cell Proliferation, Shena Geisinger
Master's Theses
Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-beta) is highly suppressive to both CD4+ and CD8+ T cell proliferation and function. in tumor microenvironments, TGF-beta has been described as immune suppressive, particularly to CD8+ T cells, however, the molecular mechanism behind how TGF-beta signaling controls T cell growth is not fully understood. Here, we report that TGF-beta inhibits CD8+ T cell proliferation and reduces expression of the CARMA1/BCL10/MALT1 (CBM) signalosome complex in activated CD8+ T cells. the CBM signalosome is an essential scaffold that forms after T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation, leading to the activation of NF-kB and AP-1. This observed reduction in …
The Characterization Of Inflammatory Extracellular Vesicles, Barak Balva
The Characterization Of Inflammatory Extracellular Vesicles, Barak Balva
Master's Theses
One of the driving factors behind innate immunity is the early response of inflammation. While beneficial in controlling infections, when uncontrolled it can lead to a plethora of disorders. Thus, it is essential to understand the driving factors behind inflammation. a cell's ability to recycle, discard, or transfer proteins is integral for survival and intercellular communication. It has been appreciated that inflammatory components, such as caspase-1, play a huge role in driving protein secretion. Thus, inflammation also plays a role in the distribution of proteins released from cells. These proteins are released via non-conventional secretory pathways, and our lab is …
Characterization Of Caspase 1 Substrate Specificity Utilizing Luminescent Reporter Constructs, Nicholas Rohlfes
Characterization Of Caspase 1 Substrate Specificity Utilizing Luminescent Reporter Constructs, Nicholas Rohlfes
Master's Theses
Inflammation is the bodies first response to defend itself against foreign pathogens and damage. Cellular sensors are constantly monitoring the body and checking for homeostatic disruption. Microbial pathogens and tissue damage are sensed by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which sense pathogen associated molecular patterns and damage associated molecular patterns, termed PAMPs and DAMPs respectively. Within the family of PRRs are sensors that can induce the formation of the multi-protein complex termed the inflammasome following activation. the inflammasome complex is a molecular platform for which caspase 1, a cysteine protease, is incorporated and is responsible for the maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines …
Enabling The Clinical Detection Of Human Papilloma Virus (Hpv) To Enhance Effective Diagnosis And Research, Jennifer Sackey
Enabling The Clinical Detection Of Human Papilloma Virus (Hpv) To Enhance Effective Diagnosis And Research, Jennifer Sackey
Master's Theses
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections. There are over 150 different genotypes of HPV. Some cause benign warts, while others cause several types of cancer. Subunit vaccines comprised of the capsid protein from an increasing number of HPV genotypes have been developed; however, the vaccines are prophylactic and are documented to protect against only 9 of the HPV genotypes. Importantly, there are also significant limitations in the clinical detection of HPV. Current clinical tests can only specifically identify HPV16 and HPV18. One of the test also detects 12 of the other high-oncogenic risk …
Induction Of Zika And Dengue Virus-Specific Cd8+ T Cells By Means Of Dna Vaccine, Natalie Jachym
Induction Of Zika And Dengue Virus-Specific Cd8+ T Cells By Means Of Dna Vaccine, Natalie Jachym
Master's Theses
Zika virus (ZIKV) and Dengue virus (DENV) are flaviviruses that circulate in the same endemic regions and can co-infect the same individual. While primary infection by DENV leads to life-long immunity to the infecting serotype, it does not provide immunity to other serotypes. Moreover, ZIKV and DENV antibodies can be cross-reactive and potentially enhance infection of the other virus through a process known as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). In this mechanism, antibodies weakly bind the infecting virus and direct virions to immunoglobulin Fc receptors on macrophages. This promotes viral uptake and infection rather than neutralize the virus. Due to this mechanism, …
Determining The Genetic And Phenotypic Profile Of Cord Blood Derived T Regulatory Cells And The Effect Of Calcitriol On Immune Suppression, Anya Nikolai-Yogerst
Determining The Genetic And Phenotypic Profile Of Cord Blood Derived T Regulatory Cells And The Effect Of Calcitriol On Immune Suppression, Anya Nikolai-Yogerst
Dissertations
Recent outbreaks in vertically transmitted viruses, such as Zika virus and HIV, have rejuvenated interest in fetal and neonatal immune tolerance. Babies are susceptible to vertically transmitted viruses because fetal and neonatal immune systems are considered to be immune-privileged and will tolerate antigens presented to them by their mother. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of this tolerance is important to design effective treatments for infected mothers to protect their offspring. Here, I define a novel Treg, a type of T cell that mediates tolerance, named bidirectional T cells (BiT), found in human umbilical cord blood (UCB). These cells are induced by …
Binge Alcohol Drinking Exacerbates Ulcerative Colitis Flare, Abigail Cannon
Binge Alcohol Drinking Exacerbates Ulcerative Colitis Flare, Abigail Cannon
Dissertations
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) remains a prominent medical concern affecting over 1.4 million people in the U.S. One of the most common forms of the disease is ulcerative colitis (UC), and UC patients will often head doctor's advice to refrain from drinking alcohol. However, whether this phenomenon of alcohol exacerbating UC symptoms occurs is still unknown, which necessitated the generation of a mouse model of UC and binge alcohol. Therefore, we examined a range of DSS concentrations (2-4%) and 2 alcohol paradigms in C57BL/6 mice. Mice receiving 2% DSS ad libitum for five days with a three-day alcohol binge had …
Modulating The Tumor Microenvironment To Induce Cross-Priming For Cancer Immunotherapy, Erica Fleming-Trujillo
Modulating The Tumor Microenvironment To Induce Cross-Priming For Cancer Immunotherapy, Erica Fleming-Trujillo
Dissertations
Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) using T cells engineered to express tumor-specific T cell receptors (TCR) holds great promise in treating cancer patients. ACT involves the in vitro generation of large numbers of tumor-specific T cells, which are then administered back to the patient, to establish an in vivo response and effective tumor control. Our lab conducted a phase I clinical trial in which metastatic melanoma patients received systemic infusions of autologous T cells transduced to express a tyrosinase-specific TCR (TIL 1383I). We observed tumor regression in one of seven patients and the development of vitiligo, indicative of T cell-mediated killing …
Structure-Guided T Cell Receptor Mutations That Alter Antigen Specificity, Cross-Reactivity, And Polyfunctional Phenotypes In Gene-Modified T Cells, Kendra Foley
Dissertations
Adoptive cell transfer of T cell receptor (TCR) gene-modified T cells targeting specific tumor antigens is currently in clinical trials for patients with advanced malignancies. Despite the clinical responses, there are still hurdles to be overcome in achieving an effective and safe therapy. One of the limitations in the success of this type of therapy is the potential for cross-reactivity and unanticipated off-target reactivity which could lead to autoimmunity. Adverse events encompassing these "off-target, off-tumor" cross-reactivities leading to autoimmunity have been seen in patients in different clinical trials. Here, we demonstrate a novel approach to improve antigen specific reactivity and …
Determination Of Transforming Growth Factor-Β Signaling Targets In Activated T Cells, Ramiah Jacks
Determination Of Transforming Growth Factor-Β Signaling Targets In Activated T Cells, Ramiah Jacks
Dissertations
T lymphocytes are a critical component of the adaptive immune system and their responses in pathogenic and steady state conditions require strict regulation. One mechanism involved in this regulation is Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) signaling. TGF-β can act on activated T cells to facilitate the differentiation of TGF-β dependent T helper subsets or the suppression of T cell activation and proliferation. However, the molecular mechanism(s) by which TGF-β signaling controls T cell differentiation vs T cell suppression remain poorly understood.TGF-β signaling is propagated by initially binding to the TGF-β type II receptor, which subsequently activates TGF-β type I receptor (TGF-βRI) …
Protection From Staphylococcus Aureus Bloodstream Infection By Probiotic Exopolysaccharide, Wonbeom Paik
Protection From Staphylococcus Aureus Bloodstream Infection By Probiotic Exopolysaccharide, Wonbeom Paik
Dissertations
Staphylococcus aureus is known to cause severe systemic infection with high mortality rates. Antibiotics are the only approved therapy for patients, but the widespread prevalence of antibiotic resistant strains limits treatment efficacy, and many patients succumb to the disease. Many probiotic agents are commercially available, but the mechanisms by which they benefit are not known. Understanding these mechanisms will help develop novel therapeutics that can improve healthcare, including systemic infections by S. aureus. Bacillus subtilis is a probiotic bacterium that produces an exopolysaccharide (EPS) that induces anti inflammatory macrophages (MΦ). We tested if EPS could be used for systemic S. …
Induction Of Zika Virus-Specific Cd8+ T Cells By Means Of Dna Vaccine, Frank Gambino Jr.
Induction Of Zika Virus-Specific Cd8+ T Cells By Means Of Dna Vaccine, Frank Gambino Jr.
Master's Theses
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a member of the virus family flaviviridae and is transmitted via Aedes aegypti mosquitos. Monoclonal antibodies against dengue virus have been found to cross-react with ZIKV but show no ability to neutralize it. Further studies have shown that Stat2-/- mice given plasma from dengue positive donors exhibit a heightened disease phenotype when challenged with ZIKV. Antibody dependent enhancement is theorized to cause such effect. The goal of this study was to design a plasmid which, when encoded, creates an antigen that will be used to stimulate exclusively CD8+ T cells. The gene sequence of NS3 was …
Cell Intrinsic Characteristics Of Cord Blood Naive Cd4 T Cells, Taylor Keller
Cell Intrinsic Characteristics Of Cord Blood Naive Cd4 T Cells, Taylor Keller
Master's Theses
The neonatal immune system is functionally distinct from the adult immune system. Neonatal immune responses are less reactive than their adult counterparts, and as such, have an increased susceptibility to infection, resulting in increased duration and severity of disease. There is evidence that T-cells are partially responsible for the observed immunological differences between neonates and adults. Murine studies on neonatal immunity suggest that Th2 like responses predominate the neonatal immune system, an observation not found in the adult immune system. However, studies on human cord blood revealed that human neonates do not exhibit elevated Th2 like cytokines (with the exception …