Immunology and Infectious Disease Commons^™

Dirofilaria Immitis Prevalence In Canis Latrans In Kentucky, Melanie Ann Brandon

Murray State Theses and Dissertations

Dirofilaria immitis (canine heartworm) was found in forty-two (42) of the two hundred seventy-five (275) Canis latrans (coyote) necropsied in the state of Kentucky from November 27, 2019 through March 3, 2021. Thirty-five (35) of the positive cases were from western Kentucky region with the other seven spread across the state. With this group of coyotes, one hundred fifty-eight (158) were male and the other one hundred six-teen (116) were female. The estimated age ranged from a pup to senior dogs. A little over forty percent of the dogs were obtained through coyote/predator tournaments; the remaining were acquired from pest …

Use Of Lymesim 2.0 To Assess The Potential For Single And Integrated Management Methods To Control Blacklegged Ticks (Ixodes Scapularis; Acari: Ixodidae) And Transmission Of Lyme Disease Spirochetes, Shravani Chitineni, Elizabeth R. Gleim, Holly D. Gaff

Undergraduate Honors Theses

Annual Lyme disease cases continue to rise in the U.S. making it the most reported vector-borne illness in the country. The pathogen (Borrelia burgdorferi) and primary vector (Ixodes scapularis; blacklegged tick) dynamics of Lyme disease are complicated by the multitude of vertebrate hosts and varying environmental factors, making models an ideal tool for exploring disease dynamics in a time- and cost-effective way. In the current study, LYMESIM 2.0, a mechanistic model, was used to explore the effectiveness of three commonly used tick control methods: habitat-targeted acaricide (spraying), rodent-targeted acaricide (bait boxes), and white-tailed deer targeted acaricide (4-poster …

Intrabodies Reveal Critical Steps Involved In Ricin's Interactions With The Ribosome, Timothy Francis Czajka

Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)

Ricin is a highly lethal protein toxin derived from the seeds of the castor plant, Ricinus communis. It is a Type II ribosome inactivating protein (RIP), meaning it is a heterodimer with one subunit, ricin toxin B (RTB), that mediates cell surface attachment and intracellular trafficking and a second subunit, ricin toxin A (RTA), that irreversibly shuts down protein synthesis in the cytosol. During trafficking, RTA and RTB necessarily separate in the endoplasmic reticulum, wherein RTA unfolds and translocates into the cytosol where it refolds into an enzymatically active conformation. RTA is remarkably fast acting and efficient, with few molecules …

Tick Ecdysteroid Hormone, Global Microbiota/Rickettsia Signaling In The Ovary Versus Carcass During Vitellogenesis In Part-Fed (Virgin) American Dog Ticks, Dermacentor Variabilis, Loganathan Ponnusamy, Haley Sutton, Robert D. Mitchell Iii, Daniel E. Sonenshine, Charles S. Apperson, Richard Michael Roe

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

The transovarial transmission of tick-borne bacterial pathogens is an important mechanism for their maintenance in natural populations and transmission, causing disease in humans and animals. The mechanism for this transmission and the possible role of tick hormones facilitating this process have never been studied. Injections of physiological levels of the tick hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), into part-fed (virgin) adult females of the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis, attached to the host caused a reduction in density of Rickettsia montanensis in the carcass and an increase in the ovaries compared to buffer-injected controls. This injection initiates yolk protein synthesis and uptake …

Trends And Opportunities In Tick-Borne Disease Geography, Catherine A. Lippi, Sadie J. Ryan, Alexis L. White, Holly D. Gaff, Colin J. Carlson

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Tick-borne diseases are a growing problem in many parts of the world, and their surveillance and control touch on challenging issues in medical entomology, agricultural health, veterinary medicine, and biosecurity. Spatial approaches can be used to synthesize the data generated by integrative One Health surveillance systems, and help stakeholders, managers, and medical geographers understand the current and future distribution of risk. Here, we performed a systematic review of over 8,000 studies and identified a total of 303 scientific publications that map tick-borne diseases using data on vectors, pathogens, and hosts (including wildlife, livestock, and human cases). We find that the …

Antibodies Against Egf-Like Domains In Ixodes Scapularis Bm86 Orthologs Impact Tick Feeding And Survival Of Borrelia Burgdorferi, Juraj Koči, Sandhya Bista, Payal Chirania, Xiuli Yang, Chrysoula Kitsou, Vipin Singh Rana, Ozlem Buyuktanir Yas, Daniel E. Sonenshine, Utpal Pal

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Ixodes scapularis ticks transmit multiple pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, and encode many proteins harboring epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like domains. We show that I. scapularis produces multiple orthologs for Bm86, a widely studied tick gut protein considered as a target of an anti-tick vaccine, herein termed as Is86. We show that Is86 antigens feature at least three identifiable regions harboring EGF-like domains (termed as EGF-1, EGF-2, and EGF-3) and are differentially upregulated during B. burgdorferi infection. Although the RNA interference-mediated knockdown of Is86 genes did not show any influences on tick engorgement or B. burgdorferi sensu stricto persistence, the …

Double Anus In An Ixodes Scapularis Nymph, A Medically Important Tick Vector, Vikas Taank, Frank A. Lattanzio, Hameeda Sultana, Girish Neelakanta

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Background: Ixodes scapularis ticks are medically important arthropod vectors that transmit several pathogens to humans. The observations of morphological abnormalities, including nanism, missing leg, extra leg, and gynandromorphism, have been reported in these ticks. In this study, we report the presence of two anuses in a laboratory-reared I. scapularis nymph.

Results: Larval ticks were allowed to feed on mice and to molt to nymphs. Two anuses were observed in one of the freshly molted nymphs. Stereo and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the presence of two anuses in one nymph within a single anal groove.

Conclusions: This report confirms the rare …

Spatial And Temporal Variation In Aedes Albopictus Prevalence Across Arkansas, Alyssa N. Jones, Eric C. Lovely, Douglas G. Barron

Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science

Aedes albopictus is a well-known vector species of mosquito that is responsible for the transmission of many arboviruses such as Zika, chikungunya, and dengue. The objective of this study was to quantify spatial and temporal variation of Ae. albopictus prevalence in Arkansas. We used egg abundance as a proxy for mosquito prevalence. Across 2 years, we worked with the Arkansas Department of Health to collect mosquito eggs using oviposition traps. Eggs were desiccated, counted, and later rehydrated in rearing chambers and raised through adulthood for species determination (>99% Ae. albopictus). We determined mean egg abundance by month, year, …

Development Of Environmental Metabarcoding Analysis For Use In Ecological Studies Of Aquatic Fungal And Oomycete Communities Using Nanopore Sequencing, Douglas Bennett

All Master's Theses

One of several factors contributing to amphibian decline are organisms called water molds (oomycetes), which parasitize and kill amphibian and fish eggs, larvae, and occasionally adults. Amphibian decline is one of the most difficult issues facing ecologists and conservationists to date; half of amphibian species are in severe decline and one third of amphibian species are facing extinction, threatening the stability of ecosystems globally. Multiple oomycete species are known to cause the disease saprolegniasis and contribute to amphibian decline; however, the full range of species involved is not presently known. This study evaluated the Oxford Nanopore minION DNA sequencer (R9.2 …

Focus Stacking Images Of Morphological Character States For Differentiating The Adults Of Ixodes Affinis And Ixodes Scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) In Areas Of Sympatry, Robyn M. Nadolny, Marcée Toliver, Holly D. Gaff, John G. Snodgrass, Richard G. Robbins

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Adult females and males of Ixodes affinis and Ixodes scapularis are illustrated by focus stacking image photography, and morphological character states are described that reliably differentiate the two species. In conjunction with other environmental cues, such as the questing phenology of adults, these characteristics will enable the rapid identification of adults of either sex along the southern Coastal Plain of the United States, where these species are sympatric.

Tick Extracellular Vesicles Enable Arthropod Feeding And Promote Distinct Outcomes Of Bacterial Infection, Adela S. Oliva Chávez, Xiaowei Wang, Liron Marnin, Nathan K. Archer, Holly L. Hammond, Erin E. Mcclure Carroll, Dana K. Shaw, Brenden G. Tully, Amanda D. Buskirk, Shelby L. Ford, L. Rainer Butler, Preeti Shahi, Kateryna Morozova, Cristina C. Clement, Lauren Lawres, Anya J. O'Neal, Choukri Ben Mamoun, Kathleen L. Mason, Brandi E. Hobbs, Glen A. Scoles, Eileen M. Barry, Daniel E. Sonenshine, Utpal Pal, Jesus G. Valenzuela, Marcelo B. Sztein, Marcela F. Pasetti, Michael L. Levin, Michail Kotsyfakis, Steven M. Jay, Jason F. Huntley, Lloyd S. Miller, Laura Santambrogio, Joao H.F. Pedra

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Extracellular vesicles are thought to facilitate pathogen transmission from arthropods to humans and other animals. Here, we reveal that pathogen spreading from arthropods to the mammalian host is multifaceted. Extracellular vesicles from Ixodes scapularis enable tick feeding and promote infection of the mildly virulent rickettsial agent Anaplasma phagocytophilum through the SNARE proteins Vamp33 and Synaptobrevin 2 and dendritic epidermal T cells. However, extracellular vesicles from the tick Dermacentor andersoni mitigate microbial spreading caused by the lethal pathogen Francisella tularensis. Collectively, we establish that tick extracellular vesicles foster distinct outcomes of bacterial infection and assist in vector feeding by acting …

Spatio-Temporal Modelling Of Tick Life-Stage Count Data With Spatially Varying Coefficients, Thabo Lephoto, Henry Mwambi, Oliver Bodhlyera, Holly Gaff

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

There is a vast amount of geo-referenced data in many fields of study including ecological studies. Geo-referencing is usually by point referencing; that is, latitudes and longitudes or by areal referencing, which includes districts, counties, states, provinces and other administrative units. The availability of large geo-referenced datasets for modelling has necessitated the development and application of spatial statistical methods. However, spatial varying coefficients models exploring the abundance of tick counts remain limited. In this study we used data that was collected and prepared by researchers in the Department of Biological Sciences from the Old Dominion University, Virginia, USA. We modelled …

Complete Genome Sequence Of Rickettsia Parkeri Strain Black Gap, Sandor E. Karpathy, Christopher D. Paddock, Stephanie L. Grizzard, Dhwani Batra, Lori A. Rowe, David T. Gauthier

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

A unique genotype of Rickettsia parkeri, designated R. parkeri strain Black Gap, has thus far been associated exclusively with the North American tick, Dermacentor parumapertus. The compete genome consists of a single circular chromosome with 1,329,522 bp and a G+C content of 32.5%.

Monitoring Relationships Between Corticosterone And Snake Fungal Disease In Timber Rattlesnakes (Crotalus Horridus) In Western Kentucky, John Bromley Hewlett

Murray State Theses and Dissertations

Over the past four decades, emergent fungal diseases have been the most devastating relative to species declines and extinctions. While most research has focused on fungal diseases affecting amphibians and bats, less has focused on diseases like snake fungal disease (SFD), caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola (Oo). SFD was first described in 2006 in North America within a Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) population in New Hampshire. Since then SFD has been documented in 19 US states, one US territory (Puerto Rico), and Europe. SFD causes high mortality in some species, including the Eastern Massasauga rattlesnakes (Sistrurus …

Investigating The Antitumor Effects Of A Dsrna-Nanoparticle Complex In An In Vitro Ovarian Cancer Model, Aaron Lewis

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

An estimated 1 in 70 women will be diagnosed with ovarian cancer in their lifetime. Despite advanced detection and treatment methods, it remains a silent killer with an expected survival rate of 50%. A developing method in cancer treatment is the use of compounds that stimulate the immune system to aid in the body's fight against the disease. This project focused on the use of the potent immune stimulant double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), commercially available as polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid, poly(I:C), to induce cytotoxicity in two ovarian cancer cell lines; SKOV-3 and OVCAR-3. Some challenges exist with the delivery of dsRNA due to …

Dsrna Conjugated Phytoglycogen Nanoparticles As An Innate Immune Stimulant To Prevent Viral Infections In Rainbow Trout And Atlantic Salmon, Kayla Samms

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Salmonids are one of the world’s most farmed fish species. These aquatic vertebrate species rely heavily on their innate immune responses to defend themselves against invading pathogens. Although commercial vaccines are available against some viral and bacterial pathogens affecting salmonids, their protective efficacy is variable. Using a prophylactic inducer of local and systemic innate immune responses could have significant implications in salmonid aquaculture. A potent inducer of the innate immune response in fish is double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), a molecule that all viruses make during their replicative cycle. Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) is a synthetic dsRNA commonly used to induce type I …

Molecular Studies On The Interactions Between Biomphalaria Snails And Schistosoma Mansoni, Lijun Lu

Biology ETDs

Biomphalaria snails serve as vectors for Schistosoma mansoni, a trematode causing human schistosomiasis. Control of Schistosoma mansoni involves chemotherapy of affected people, but new control methods built on improved understanding of schistosome-snail interactions are needed. My dissertation applies molecular and bioinformatics approaches to understand such interactions. Chapter 1 shows that significant differences exist among Biomphalaria species in Africa with respect to their ability to support schistosome development. Chapters 2 and 3 reveal the transcriptional responses of Biomphalaria glabrata susceptible (SUS) or resistant (RES) to Schistosoma mansoni. Chapter 2 identifies a new family of snail immune factors, the AIG …

Mechanisms By Which Mnte-2-Pyp Suppresses Prostate Cancer Cell Growth, Yuxiang Zhu

Theses & Dissertations

Prostate cancer patients are often treated with radiotherapy. MnTE-2-PyP, is a superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimic and a known radioprotector of normal tissues. Our recent work demonstrates that MnTE-2-PyP also inhibits prostate cancer progression with radiotherapy; however, the mechanisms remain unclear. In this thesis, we identified that MnTE-2-PyP-induced intracellular H2O2 levels are critical in inhibiting growth of prostate cancer cells. We found that MnTE-2-PyP induced protein oxidations in PC3 cells and one major group of oxidized protein targets were involved in energy metabolism. The oxidative phosphorylation rates were significantly enhanced in both PC3 and LNCaP cells with MnTE-2-PyP treatment, but mitochondrial …

Prevalence Of Snake Fungal Disease Caused By Ophidiomyces Ophiodiicola In East Texas, Alan Lizarraga

Biology Theses

Fungal pathogens and resultant disease are credited with the decline of many species across all branches of the tree of life. Fungal diseases such as Snake Fungal Disease (SFD), primarily caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola (Oo), have been strongly associated with the cause of the decrease/disappearance of many snake populations in North America. To date SFD in the wild has been described as far southwest as central Louisiana. Due to similar conditions and the proximity of East Texas to central Louisiana, a survey of local snake populations provided crucial information about the spread and presence of this emerging pathogen. …

Impact Of Endangered Animal Protection Rights, Policies, And Practices On Zoonotic Disease Spread, Daniella Fedak-Lengel

Honors Projects

Building on field research in Costa Rica and Belize, this honors project analyzes environmental and endangered animal protection policies, rights, and practices in Central America and the Caribbean, and assesses the impact of veterinary science and biological research and practice, particularly conservation biology, on animal welfare concerns. Informed by the recent surge in awareness regarding zoonoses and zoonotic disease transmission, prevention and control, resulting from the current global pandemic of SARS-CoV-2, the project assesses the need for new and innovative types of collaboration, particularly involving conservation biologists, environmental scientists, public health experts, law and policy makers, and global trade and …

Tunel Apoptotic Cell Detection In Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (Sctld): Evaluation Of Potential And Improvements, E. Murphy Mcdonald

All HCAS Student Capstones, Theses, and Dissertations

Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) is a highly lethal coral disease that has caused a dramatic loss of coral tissue along the Florida Reef Tract and throughout the Wider Caribbean. This study seeks to understand whether programmed cell death (apoptosis) is involved in the pathology of the highly virulent SCTLD tissue loss lesion. Tissues from diseased colonies of Pseudodiploria strigosa collected in 2018 and 2020 were stained using the terminal deoxyribonucleotidyltransferase (TdT) mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay to visualize areas of programmed cell death. The archived tissue samples collected in 2018 exhibited a significantly higher degree of …

Fibroblast Heterogeneity In Pancreatic Cancer Immunity, Josephine Darpolor

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Fibroblasts are a unique cell type defined by their mesenchymal phenotype and exclusion from epithelial, immune, and endothelial cell subsets. Although well studied in wound healing, cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are incredibly heterogeneous, leading to contradictions as to the roles CAFs play in the tumor microenvironment (TME). CAFs were thought to be a barrier to treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, general stromal targeting strategies have largely failed in the clinic likely due to the heterogeneity of CAFs in the TME. Therefore, our groups and others have worked to unravel the heterogeneity of CAFs in PDAC. In the works …

Carbapenemase Screening In An Irish Tertiary Referral Hospital: Best Practice, Or Can We Do Better?, Sinéad Fahy, J. A. O'Connor, D. O'Brien, L. Fitzpatrick, M. O'Connor, J. Crowley, M. Bernard, Roy D. Sleator, Brigid Lucey

Department of Biological Sciences Publications

Initially, United States Centre of Disease Control (CDC) recommended culture-based CPE screens; using broth enrichment in tryptone soy broth (TSB), followed by culture onto MacConkey agar with a carbapenem disc. However, this protocol is both time consuming (approx. 48hrs) and labour intensive, making it impractical for routine screening, particularly in a busy hospital laboratory [10]. Some improvements have been observed using commercially available culture plates, particularly in terms of decreased turnaround times (approx. 24hrs) and increased sensitivity/specificity for CPE producers; mSuperCarba (CHROMagar) media, for example has shown an increased sensitivity rate of 83% compared to 69% for MacConkey culture with …

Mucosal Immune System Of African Lungfish, Ryan D. Heimroth

Biology ETDs

Conquering land was an apex moment in the evolution of vertebrates. Physiologically, the first vertebrates to transition to life on land had to adapt in order to survive in an oxygen-rich environment where gravitational forces and limited water prevailed. Several extant vertebrates including anurans and lungfish, survive droughts by undergoing aestivation. Unfavorable environmental conditions trigger lungfish to aestivate. Aestivation is a process of metabolic torpor wherein the fish will encase itself in a mucus cocoon and not move until favorable environmental conditions (food and water) are reintroduced. Aestivation can be reproduced in laboratory settings and, thus, lungfish can be used …

Field Evaluation Of Recombinant Antigen Elisa In Detecting Zoonotic Schistosome Infection Among Water Buffaloes In Endemic Municipalities In The Philippines, Jose Ma. M. Angeles, Yasuyuki Goto, Masahi Kirinoki, Elena A. Villacorte, Kharleezelle J. Moendeg, Pilarita T. Rivera, Yuichi Chigusa, Shin-Ichiro Kawazu

Biology Faculty Publications

In this study, we investigated the use of recombinant antigens thioredoxin peroxidase-1 (rSjTPx-1) and tandem repeat rSj1TR in evaluating the antibody positivity rates of Schistosoma japonicum infection among water buffaloes from four endemic areas in the Philippines, two municipalities with high endemicity (Calatrava, Negros Occidental and Catarman, Northern Samar) and two municipalities nearing elimination with no cases of human schistosomiasis (Talibon and Trinidad, Bohol). These recombinant antigen ELISA assays were compared with other diagnostic tests including SEA-ELISA, FECT, and fecal-based PCR. Results showed that rSj1TR-ELISA has the highest agreement with PCR in all study areas. Furthermore, significant positivity rates among …

A Brain-Infecting Parasite Impacts Host Metabolism Both During Exposure And After Infection Is Established, Lauren E. Nadler, Erik Bengston, Erika J. Eliason, Cameron Hassibi, Siri H. Helland-Riise, Ida B. Johansen, Garfield T. Kwan, Martin Tresguerres, Andrew V. Turner, Kelly L. Weinersmith, Øyvind Øverli, Ryan F. Hechinger

Marine & Environmental Sciences Faculty Datasets

1. Metabolic costs associated with parasites should not be limited to established infections. Even during initial exposure to questing and attacking parasites, hosts can enact behavioural and physiological responses that could also incur metabolic costs. However, few studies have measured these costs directly. Hence, little is known about metabolic costs arising from parasite exposure.
2. Further, no one has yet measured whether and how previous infection history modulates metabolic responses to parasite exposure.
3. Here, using the California killifish (Fundulus parvipinnis) and its brain-infecting parasite (Euhaplorchis californiensis), we quantified how killifish metabolism, behaviour, and osmoregulatory phenotype changed upon acute …

Endothelial Cell Contributions To Covid-19, Alexandra E. Oxford, Fabio Halla, Evan B. Robertson, Brad E. Morrison

Biology Faculty Publications and Presentations

Understanding of the clinical, histological and molecular features of the novel coronavirus 2019 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)) has remained elusive. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by this virus has unusual clinical presentation with regard to other related coronaviruses. Recent reports suggest that SARS-CoV-2, unlike other related viruses, infects and replicates within endothelial cells, which may explain a significant portion of the observed clinical pathology. Likewise, mounting evidence associates vascular and endothelial cell dysfunction with increased mortality. This review focuses on understanding how endothelial cell pathology is caused by SARS-CoV-2 at the molecular and cellular levels and how …

Analyses Of The Expression, Immunohistochemical Properties And Serodiagnostic Potential Of Schistosoma Japonicum Peroxiredoxin-4, Minh-Anh Dang-Trinh, Jose Ma. M. Angeles, Kharleezelle J. Moendeg, Adrian Miki C. Macalanda, Thu-Thuy Nguyen, Luna Higuchi, Shotaro Nakagun, Masahi Kirinoki, Yuichi Chigusa, Yasuyuki Goto, Shin-Ichiro Kawazu

Biology Faculty Publications

Background

Schistosoma japonicum, which inhabits the mesenteric vein of the mammalian hosts for about 20 to 30 years, is subjected to the oxidative stresses from the host defense mechanism during their intra-mammalian stages. To counteract this host immune attack, the parasite utilizes their antioxidant system for survival inside the host. Peroxiredoxins (Prxs), thiol-specific antioxidant proteins, play an essential role for protecting the parasite against oxidative stress by reducing hydrogen peroxide to water. Only three types of 2-Cys Prxs have been previously characterized in S. japonicum whereas a fourth Prx has been identified for Schistosoma mansoni as Prx-4. A sequence …

Increased Diversity And Novel Subtypes Among Clinical Cryptosporidium Parvum And Cryptosporidium Hominis Isolates In Southern Ireland, Jennifer K. O'Leary, Liam Blake, Gerard D. Corcoran, Roy D. Sleator, Brigid Lucey

Department of Biological Sciences Publications

Reported incidence rates of cryptosporidiosis in Ireland are consistently among the highest in Europe. Despite the national prevalence of this enteric parasite and the compulsory nature of incidence surveillance and reporting, in-depth analyses seeking to genotype clinical isolates of Cryptosporidium on an intra-species level are rarely undertaken in Ireland. This molecular epidemiology study of 163 clinical Cryptosporidium isolates was conducted in Southern Ireland, from 2015 to 2018, in order to ascertain population subtype heterogeneity. Analysis was conducted via real-time PCR amplification and gp60 gene sequencing, which successfully determined the subtype designation of 149 of the 163 (91.4%) tested isolates. Overall, …

A Study On Ecological Distribution Of And Selected Gene Expression In Amblyomma Americanum: An Insight Into The Alpha-Galactose Allergy Caused By Tick Bites, Leah Cuthill

Electronic Theses & Dissertations

Ticks transmit a wide variety of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminthes to vertebrates. Their life cycle depends on blood meals from various hosts as well as on environmental conditions such as the temperature and habitat type. A newly recognized allergic disease has been identified and is characterized by a delayed reaction following the consumption of some mammalian meats. The allergy often results in life threatening reactions such as anaphylaxis, hives, and breathing problems 3-6 hours after the consumption of mammalian meat. Not everyone develops the allergy when they are bitten by a lone star tick, and the cause …