Genetics and Genomics Commons^™

Multiple Genes On Chromosome 7 Regulate Dopaminergic Amacrine Cell Number In The Mouse Retina, Irene E. Whitney, Mary A. Day, Daniel C. Ciobanu, Robert W. Williams, Benjamin E. Reese

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

Purpose—The size of neuronal populations is modulated by gene variants that influence cell production and survival, in turn influencing neuronal connectivity, function, and disease risk. The size of the dopaminergic amacrine (DA) cell population is a highly heritable trait exhibiting six-fold variation among inbred strains of mice, and is used here to identify genes that modulate the number of DA cells.

Methods—The entire population was counted in retinal wholemounts from 37 genetically defined lines of mice, including six standard inbred strains, 25 recombinant inbred strains (AXB/BXA), reciprocal F1 hybrids, a chromosome (Chr) 7 consomic line, and three additional …

Comparison Of Replication-Competent, First Generation, And Helper-Dependent Adenoviral Vaccines, Eric A. Weaver, Pramod N. Nehete, Stephanie S. Buchl, Julien S. Senac, Donna Palmer, Philip Ng, K. Jagannadha Sastry, Michael A. Barry

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

All studies using human serotype 5 Adenovirus (Ad) vectors must address two major obstacles: safety and the presence of pre-existing neutralizing antibodies. Helper-Dependent (HD) Ads have been proposed as alternative vectors for gene therapy and vaccine development because they have an improved safety profile. To evaluate the potential of HD-Ad vaccines, we compared replication-competent (RC), first-generation (FG) and HD vectors for their ability to induce immune responses in mice. We show that RC-Ad5 and HD-Ad5 vectors generate stronger immune responses than FG-Ad5 vectors. HD-Ad5 vectors gave lower side effects than RC or FG-Ad, producing lower levels of tissue damage and …

Wnt And Egf Pathways Act Together To Induce C. Elegans Male Hook Development, Hui Yu, Adeline Seah, Michael A. Herman, Edwin L. Ferguson, H. Robert Horvitz, Paul W. Sternberg

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Comparative studies of vulva development between Caenorhabditis elegans and other nematode species have provided some insight into the evolution of patterning networks. However, molecular genetic details are available only in C. elegans and Pristionchus pacificus. To extend our knowledge on the evolution of patterning networks, we studied the C. elegans male hook competence group (HCG), an equivalence group that has similar developmental origins to the vulval precursor cells (VPCs), which generate the vulva in the hermaphrodite. Similar to VPC fate specification, each HCG cell adopts one of three fates (1°, 2°, 3°), and 2° HCG fate specification …

Characterization Of 24 Microsatellite Loci In Delta Smelt, Hypomesus Transpacificus, And Their Cross-Species Amplification In Two Other Smelt Species Of The Osmeridae Family, Kathleen M. Fisch, Jessica Lynn Petersen, Melinda R. Baerwald, John K. Pedroia, Bernie May

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

We characterized 24 polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellite loci for delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) endemic to the San Francisco Bay Estuary, California, USA. Screening of samples (n = 30) yielded two to 26 alleles per locus with observed levels of heterozygosity ranging from 0.17 to 1.0. Only one locus deviated from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, suggesting these individuals originate from a single panmictic population. Linkage disequilibrium was found in two pairs of loci after excluding the locus out of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Twenty-two primer pairs cross-amplified in wakasagi smelt (Hypomesus nipponensis), and 15 primer pairs cross-amplified in longfin smelt ( …

Gene Duplication And The Resolution Of Adaptive Conflict, Jay F. Storz

Jay F. Storz Publications

Gene duplication is known to play an important role in the evolution of novel protein functions. However, there is still much debate about the evolutionary mechanisms that are responsible for the initial retention and subsequent divergence of newly created gene duplicates (Lynch et al., 2001; Zhang, 2003; Lynch and Katju, 2004; Taylor and Raes, 2004). According to the neofunctionalization (NEOF) model of Ohno (1970), the functional redundancy of duplicated genes entails a relaxation of purifying selection that results in the accumulation of degenerative mutations in one gene copy, while the other duplicate copy continues to perform the essential tasks of …

X4 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Gp120 Down-Modulates Expression And Immunogenicity Of Codelivered Antigens, Avi-Hai Hovav, Michael Santosuosso, Maytal Bivas-Benita, Andre Plair, Alex Cheng, Mazal Elnekave, Elda Righi, Tao Chen, Satoshi Kashiwagi, Michael W. Panas, Shi-Hua Xiang, Karina Furmanov, Norman L. Letvin, Mark C. Poznansky

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

In order to increase the immune breadth of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccines, strategies such

as immunization with several HIV antigens or centralized immunogens have been examined. HIV-1 gp120

protein is a major immunogen of HIV and has been routinely considered for inclusion in both present and

future AIDS vaccines. However, recent studies proposed that gp120 interferes with the generation of immune

response to codelivered antigens. Here, we investigate whether coimmunization with plasmid-encoded gp120

alters the immune response to other coadministered plasmid encoded antigens such as luciferase or ovalbumin

in a mouse model. We found that the presence of gp120 …

Identification And Characterization Of A New Kaposi’S Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Replication And Transcription Activator (Rta)- Responsive Element Involved In Rta-Mediated Transactivation, Hui-Ju Wen, Veenu Minhas, Charles Wood

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) replication and transcription activator (RTA) is well established as a key transcriptional activator that regulates the KSHV life cycle from latency to lytic replication. It is expressed immediately after infection and activates a number of viral genes leading to virus replication. The RTA-responsive element (RRE) in the RTA target gene promoters is critical for RTA to mediate this transactivation. A number of non-conserved RREs have been identified in various RTA-responsive promoters, and AT-rich sequences have been proposed to serve as RTA targets, but no consensus RRE sequence has been identified so far. Two nonconserved RREs (RRE1 …

Use Of Average Mutual Information For Studying Changes In Hiv Populations, Khalid Sayood, Federico Hoffman, Charles Wood

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Average mutual information (AMI) has been used in a number of applications in bioinformatics. In this paper we present its use to study genetic changes in populations; in particular populations of HIV viruses. Disease progression of HIV-1 infection in infants can be rapid resulting in death within the the first year, or slow, allowing the infant to survive beyond the first year. We study the development of rapid and slow progressing HIV population using AMI charts based on average mutual information among amino acids in the env gene from a population of 1142 clones derived from seven infants with slow …

Comparison Of Replication-Competent, First Generation, And Helper-Dependent Adenoviral Vaccines, Eric A. Weaver, Pramod N. Nehete, Stephanie S. Buchl, Julien S. Senac, Donna Palmer, Philip Ng, K. Jagannadha Sastry, Michael A. Barry

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

All studies using human serotype 5 Adenovirus (Ad) vectors must address two major obstacles: safety and the presence of pre-existing neutralizing antibodies. Helper-Dependent (HD) Ads have been proposed as alternative vectors for gene therapy and vaccine development because they have an improved safety profile. To evaluate the potential of HD-Ad vaccines, we compared replication-competent (RC), first-generation (FG) and HD vectors for their ability to induce immune responses in mice. We show that RC-Ad5 and HD-Ad5 vectors generate stronger immune responses than FG-Ad5 vectors. HD-Ad5 vectors gave lower side effects than RC or FG-Ad, producing lower levels of tissue damage and …

Effects Of Time Of Transporting Prior To Sale Date On Selling Weight Of Weaned Steer Calves, L. M. Kovarik, Matt K. Luebbe, Joshua R. Benton, Galen E. Erickson, Richard J. Rasby

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

Eighty-eight crossbred weaned steer calves (250 + 26 kg) were used to evaluate weight loss (shrink) when transported to a mock sale barn on differing days prior to sale. The calves were weaned 14 days and fed free choice grass hay and 0.9 kg of DDGS at UNL’s Dalbey-Halleck Research Unit. Two days before initiation of treatments all calves were fed grass hay ad libitum and initial BW were recorded on two consecutive days. Calves were assigned randomly to treatment as a completely randomized design. On d 2, 1d restricted and 1d ad libitum treatments were transported 150 km to …

Thirty-Seven Additional Microsatellite Loci In The Pacific Lion-Paw Scallop (Nodipecten Subnodosus) And Cross-Amplification In Other Pectinids, Jessica Lynn Petersen, Ana M. Ibarra, Bernie May

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

We characterized 37 new microsatellite markers in the Pacific lion-paw scallop (Nodipecten subnodosus) and tested for cross-amplification in four other species. Genetic diversity was estimated using 24 individuals from the Lagoon Ojo de Liebre, B.C.S., Mexico. Allelic richness varied from 5 to 27 alleles per locus and the average expected heterozygosity was 0.76. Ten loci exhibited significant departure from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium likely due to the presence of null alleles. Sixteen of these markers cross-amplified in closely related N. nodosus, while little or no amplification was observed in three Argopecten species.

Molecular Evolution Of Cytochrome B In High- And Low-Altitude Deer Mice (Genus Peromyscus), E. J. Gering, J. C. Opazo, Jay F. Storz

Jay F. Storz Publications

Patterns of amino-acid polymorphism in human mitochondrial genes have been interpreted as evidence for divergent selection among populations that inhabit climatically distinct environments. If similar patterns are mirrored in other broadly distributed mammalian species, then adaptive modifications of mitochondrial protein function may be detected in comparisons among locally adapted populations of a single wide-ranging species, or among closely related species that have adapted to different environments. Here, we test for evidence of positive selection on cytochrome b variation within and among species of the ecologically diverse rodent genus Peromyscus. We used likelihood-based comparisons of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution rates to …

Supplementing Wet Distillers Grains Mixed With Low Quality Forage To Grazing Cow Calf Pairs, Brandon L. Nuttelman, William Griffin, T. J. Klopfenstein, Walter H. Schacht, Leslie Aaron Stalker, Jacqueline Musgrave, Jerry D. Volesky

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

Two consecutive summer grazing studies were conducted to quantify the effect of supplementing cows with wet distillers grains (WDGS) mixed with low quality forage on 1) grazed forage intake and 2) cow and calf performance. During exp. 1, twenty-four three year old lactating cows rotationally grazed for 56 d and were assigned to one of three treatments: 1) the recommended stocking rate of 1.48 AUM/ha with no supplementation (CON1), 2) double the recommended stocking rate (2.96 AUM/ha) and supplemented 6.64 kg/hd daily of 45% grass hay and 55% WDGS (DM) to replace 50% of estimated total intake (SUP), and 3) …

Comparison Of Feeding Wet Distillers Grains In A Bunk Or On The Ground To Cattle Grazing Native Sandhills Winter Range, Jacqueline Musgrave, Leslie Aaron Stalker, Matthew C. Stockton, T. J. Klopfenstein

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

Two-experiments determined the effects of feeding wet distillers grains with solubles (WDGS) either on the ground or in a bunk to cattle grazing native Sandhills winter range. In Experiment 1 (Exp. 1), 120 multiparous March-calving cows (536 ± 53.5 kg BW) were stratified by age and assigned to one of four treatments: WDGS fed on the ground, either three or six d/wk; or WDGS fed in a bunk either three or six d/wk. In Experiment 2 (Exp. 2), 63 March-born steer calves (201.2 ± 27.5 kg BW) were stratified by weight and assigned to one of two feeding treatments: WDGS …

Large-Scale Association Study For Structural Soundness And Leg Locomotion Traits In The Pig, Bin Fan, Suneel K. Onteru, Benny E. Mote, Timo Serenius, Kenneth J. Stalder, Max F. Rothschild

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

Background: Identification and culling of replacement gilts with poor skeletal conformation and feet and leg (FL) unsoundness is an approach used to reduce sow culling and mortality rates in breeding stock. Few candidate genes related to soundness traits have been identified in the pig.

Methods: In this study, 2066 commercial females were scored for 17 traits describing body conformation and FL structure, and were used for association analyses. Genotyping of 121 SNPs derived from 95 genes was implemented using Sequenom's MassARRAY system.

Results: Based on the association results from single trait and principal components using mixed linear …

Age And Diet Affect Gene Expression Profile In Canine Skeletal Muscle, Ingmar S. Middelbos, Brittany M. Vester, Lisa K. Karr-Lilienthal, Lawrence B. Schook, Kelly S. Swanson

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

We evaluated gene transcription in canine skeletal muscle (biceps femoris) using microarray analysis to identify effects of age and diet on gene expression. Twelve female beagles were used (six 1-year olds and six 12-year olds) and they were fed one of two experimental diets for 12 months. One diet contained primarily plant-based protein sources (PPB), whereas the second diet contained primarily animal-based protein sources (APB). Affymetrix GeneChip Canine Genome Arrays were used to hybridize extracted RNA. Age had the greatest effect on gene transcription (262 differentially expressed genes), whereas the effect of diet was relatively small (22 differentially expressed genes). …

Association And Haplotype Analyses Of Positional Candidate Genes In Five Genomic Regions Linked To Scrotal Hernia In Commercial Pig Lines, Zhi-Qiang Du, Xia Zhao, Natascha Vukasinovic, Fernanda Rodriguez, Archie C. Clutter, Max F. Rothschild

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

Scrotal hernia in pigs is a complex trait likely affected by genetic and environmental factors. A large-scale association analysis of positional and functional candidate genes was conducted in four previously identified genomic regions linked to hernia susceptibility on Sus scrofa chromosomes 2 and 12, as well as the fifth region around 67 cM on chromosome 2, respectively. In total, 151 out of 416 SNPs discovered were genotyped successfully. Using a family-based analysis we found that four regions surrounding ELF5, KIF18A, COL23A1 on chromosome 2, and NPTX1 on chromosome 12, respectively, may contain the genetic variants important for the …

Effect Of Hydrogen Peroxide In The Scald Tank On The Microbial Count Of Pork Skin, A. S. De Mello Jr., R. O. Roca

Department of Animal Science: Faculty Publications

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) (50% v/v) on pork skin microbial populations. Forty-eight crossbred hogs were analyzed after dehairing and 30 during chilling. Three different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide were added to the scalding water (0.01, 0.05 and 0.1% of the total capacity of the scald tank). In treatment I no addition of H₂O₂ was applied while, in treatment II, H₂O₂ was added at 0 min and, in treatment III, it was added at 0, 30 and 60 min. Both treatments …

Human Ubc9 Contributes To Production Of Fully Infectious Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Virions, Tareq Jaber, Christopher R. Bohl, Gentry L. Lewis, Charles Wood, John T. West Jr., Robert A. Weldon Jr.

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Ubc9 was identified as a cellular protein that interacts with the Gag protein of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus. We show here that Ubc9 also interacts with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Gag protein and that their interaction is important for virus replication. Gag was found to colocalize with Ubc9 predominantly at perinuclear puncta. While cells in which Ubc9 expression was suppressed with RNA interference produced normal numbers of virions, these particles were 8- to 10-fold less infectious than those produced in the presence of Ubc9. The nature of this defect was assayed for dependence on Ubc9 during viral assembly, …

Expression Of Hpv16 E5 Produces Enlarged Nuclei And Polyploidy Through Endoreplication, Lulin Hu, Tamara A. Potapova, Shibo Li, Susannah Rankin, Gary J. Gorbsky, Peter C. Angeletti, Brian P. Ceresa

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Anogenital cancers and head and neck cancers are causally-associated with infection by high-risk

human papillomavirus (HPV). The mechanism by which high-risk HPVs contribute to

oncogenesis is poorly understood. HPV16 encodes three genes (HPV16 E5, E6, and E7) that can

transform cells when expressed independently. HPV16 E6 and E7 have well-described roles

causing genomic instability and unregulated cell cycle progression. The role of HPV16 E5 in cell

transformation remains to be elucidated. Expression of HPV16 E5 results in enlarged, polyploid

nuclei that are dependent on the level and duration of HPV16 E5 expression. Live-cell imaging

data indicate these changes do not …

Human Papillomavirus 16 E5 Induces Bi-Nucleated Cell Formation By Cell-Cell Fusion, Lulin Ha, Kendra Plafker, Valeriya Vorozhoko, Rosemary E. Zuna, Marie H. Hanigan, Gary J. Gorbsky, Scott M. Plafker, Peter C. Angeletti, Brian P. Ceresa

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Human Papillomaviruses (HPV) 16 is a DNA virus encoding three oncogenes – E5, E6, and E7. The E6 and E7 proteins have well-established roles as inhibitors of tumor suppression, but the contribution of E5 to malignant transformation is controversial. Using spontaneously immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), we demonstrate that expression of HPV16 E5 is necessary and sufficient for the formation of bi-nucleated cells, a common characteristic of precancerous cervical lesions. Expression of E5 from non-carcinogenic HPV6b does not produce bi-nucleate cells. Video microscopy and biochemical analyses reveal that bi-nucleates arise through cell-cell fusion. Although most E5-induced bi-nucleates fail to propagate, …

A Comparative Study Of Hiv-1 Clade C Env Evolution In A Zambian Infant With An Infected Rhesus Macaque During Disease Progression, For Yue Tso, Federico G. Hoffmann, Damien C. Tully, Philippe Lemey, Robert A. Rasmussen, Hong Zhang, Ruth M. Ruprecht, Charles Wood

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Objective—To evaluate whether HIV-1 clade C (HIV-C) envelope variations that arise during disease progression in rhesus macaque model reflect changes that occur naturally in human infection.

Design—An infant macaque was infected with SHIV-1157i, an R5 tropic clade C SHIV (SHIV-C) which expresses a primary HIV-C envelope derived from an infected human infant, and monitored over a five-year period. Genetic variation of the V1-V5 envelope region, which is the main target for humoral immune responses, derived from the infected macaque and infant was examined.

Methods—V1-V5 envelope region were cloned and sequenced from longitudinal PBMC samples collected from the infected macaque and …

Protection Against Mucosal Shiv Challenge By Peptide And Helper-Dependent Adenovirus Vaccines, Eric A. Weaver, Pramod N. Nehete, Bharti P. Nehete, Stephanie J. Buchl, Donna Palmer, David C. Montefiori, Philip Ng, K. Jagannadha Sastry, Michael A. Barry

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Groups of rhesus macaques that had previously been immunized with HIV-1 envelope (env) peptides and first generation adenovirus serotype 5 (FG-Ad5) vaccines expressing the same peptides were immunized intramuscularly three times with helper- dependent adenovirus (HD-Ad) vaccines expressing only the HIV-1 envelope from JRFL. No gag, pol, or other SHIV genes were used for vaccination. One group of the FG-Ad5- immune animals was immunized three times with HD-Ad5 expressing env. One group was immunized by serotype-switching with HD-Ad6, HD-Ad1, and HD-Ad2 expressing env. Previous work demonstrated that serum antibody levels against env were significantly higher in the serotype-switched group than …

Origin And Ascendancy Of A Chimeric Fusion Gene: The Β/Δ-Globin Gene Of Paenungulate Mammals, Juan C. Opazo, Angela M. Sloan, Kevin L. Campbell, Jay F. Storz

Jay F. Storz Publications

The δ-globin gene (HBD) of eutherian mammals exhibits a propensity for recombinational exchange with the closely linked β-globin gene (HBB) and has been independently converted by the HBB gene in multiple lineages. Here we report the presence of a chimeric β/δ fusion gene in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) that was created by unequal crossing-over between misaligned HBD and HBB paralogs. The recombinant chromosome that harbors the β/δ fusion gene in elephants is structurally similar to the ‘‘anti-Lepore’’ duplication mutant of humans (the reciprocal exchange product of the hemoglobin Lepore deletion mutant). However, the situation in …

Evolution Of Duplicated Β-Globin Genes And The Structural Basis Of Hemoglobin Isoform Differentiation In Mus, Amy M. Runck, Hideaki Moriyama, Jay F. Storz

Jay F. Storz Publications

The functional diversification of multigene families may be strongly influenced by mechanisms of concerted evolution such as interparalog gene conversion. The β-globin gene family of house mice (genus Mus) represents an especially promising system for evaluating the effects of gene conversion on the functional divergence of duplicated genes. Whereas the majority of mammalian species possess tandemly duplicated copies of the adult β-globin gene that are identical in sequence, natural populations of house mice are often polymorphic for distinct two-locus haplotypes that differ in levels of functional divergence between duplicated β-globin genes, HBB-T1 and HBB-T2. Here, we use a phylogenetic …

Ecological Genomics Of Nematode Community Interactions: Model And Non-Model Approaches, Michael A. Herman, Joseph D. Coolon, Kenneth L. Jones, Timothy Todd

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The effects of human-induced environmental change are evident at multiple levels of biological organization. To date, most environmental change studies have focused on effects at the ecosystem, community, and organismal levels. However, the ultimate controls of biological responses are located in the genome. Thus, genetic and genomic studies of organismal responses to environmental changes are necessary. Recent advances in genome analysis now make such analyses possible. In this chapter we describe a research approach and program that can begin to span this gap by using genome-enabled approaches to characterize organismal changes and then employing a genetically tractable model organism to …

Effects Of Shielding Adenoviral Vectors With Polyethylene Glycol On Vector-Specific And Vaccine-Mediated Immune Responses, Eric A. Weaver, Michael A. Barry

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Many individuals have been previously exposed to human adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5). This prior immunity has long been known to hinder its use for gene therapy and as a gene-based vaccine. Given these immunogenicity problems, we have tested whether polyethylene glycol (PEG) can blunt immune effects against Ad5 during systemic and mucosal vaccination. Ad5 vectors were covalently modified with 5-, 20-, and 35-kDa linear PEG polymers and evaluated for their ability to produce immune responses against transgene antigen products and the vector itself. We show that shielding Ad5 with different-sized PEGs generally reduces transduction and primary antibody responses by the …

New Genes Originated Via Multiple Recombinational Pathways In The Β-Globin Gene Family Of Rodents, Frederico Hoffmann, Juan Opazo, Jay F. Storz

Jay F. Storz Publications

Species differences in the size or membership composition of multigene families can be attributed to lineage-specific additions of new genes via duplication, losses of genes via deletion or inactivation, and the creation of chimeric genes via domain shuffling or gene fusion. In principle, it should be possible to infer the recombinational pathways responsible for each of these different types of genomic change by conducting detailed comparative analyses of genomic sequence data. Here, we report an attempt to unravel the complex evolutionary history of the β-globin gene family in a taxonomically diverse set of rodent species. The main objectives were: 1) …

Differential Loss Of Embryonic Globin Genes During The Radiation Of Placental Mammals, Juan C. Opazo, Federico Hoffmann, Jay F. Storz

Jay F. Storz Publications

The differential gain and loss of genes from homologous gene families represents an important source of functional variation among the genomes of different species. Differences in gene content between species are primarily attributable to lineage-specific gene gains via duplication and lineage-specific losses via deletion or inactivation. Here, we use a comparative genomic approach to investigate this process of gene turnover in the β-globin gene family of placental mammals. By analyzing genomic sequence data from representatives of each of the main superordinal clades of placental mammals, we were able to reconstruct pathways of gene family evolution during the basal radiation of …

An Evolutionary Expressed Sequence Tag Analysis Of Drosophila Spermatheca Genes, Adrianne Prokupek, Federico G. Hoffmann, Seong-Il Eyun, Etsuko N. Moriyama, Min Zhou, Lawrence G. Harshman

Papers in Genetics

This study investigates genes enriched for expression in the spermatheca, the long-term sperm storage organ (SSO) of female Drosophila. SSO genes are likely to play an important role in processes of sexual selection such as sperm competition and cryptic female choice. Although there is keen interest in the mechanisms of sexual selection at the molecular level, very little is known about the female genes that are involved. In the present study, a high proportion of genes enriched for expression in the spermatheca are evolving rapidly. Most of the rapidly evolving genes are proteases and genes of unknown function that …