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Articles 1 - 30 of 71
Full-Text Articles in Entomology
European Corn Borer Management In Field Corn, Igor Sulzbacher Schardong, Francis Reay-Jones
European Corn Borer Management In Field Corn, Igor Sulzbacher Schardong, Francis Reay-Jones
Agronomic Crops
In the past, European Corn Borer (ECB) was considered a billion-dollar pest. Bt corn was first released in 1996 and its widely adoption reduced ECB populations and economic importance. Resistance to some Bt toxins was detected in Canada, representing a possible threat to corn production. In this paper, we reviewed potential management tactics for ECB in corn.
Soil Pests Of Corn, Francis Reay-Jones, Tim Bryant, Igor Schardong
Soil Pests Of Corn, Francis Reay-Jones, Tim Bryant, Igor Schardong
Agronomic Crops
Corn rootworms, seed corn maggot, wireworms, and white grubs are sporadic insect pests of corn in the southeastern U.S. The immature stages of these species are subterranean, allowing them to feed on the roots of corn. The purpose of this publication is to provide growers, Extension agents, consultants, and other agricultural professionals an overview of the most common soil insect pests and how to control them.
Biology, Ecology And Control Of Eye Gnats In An Open Pine Ecosystem, Leela Hospach
Biology, Ecology And Control Of Eye Gnats In An Open Pine Ecosystem, Leela Hospach
All Theses
Eye gnats of the genus Liohippelates are bothersome flies of the family Chloropidae. They breed in moist, disturbed, sandy soils that contain organic matter, and have been implicated as vectors of conjunctivitis, bovine mastitis, and yaws. We conducted research into some basic biological and ecological characteristics. Using wild-caught gnats in a temperature-controlled incubator, we found that their activity peaks between 27°C and 41°C. Trapping at different heights above the forest floor in an open-pine savannah, we captured most gnats at 7.5 m off the ground. This may have to do with the attractiveness of the rotten egg lures we used, …
Comparative Biomechanics: Blattodea Antennal Morphology And Physiology, Lucas W. Marsh
Comparative Biomechanics: Blattodea Antennal Morphology And Physiology, Lucas W. Marsh
All Theses
Equipped with muscle-free antennae, many insects can twist and bend their antennae on demand. We hypothesized that hemolymph circulating through the antennae provides pressure that facilitates twisting and bending and provides a feedback control channel for tactile sensing in insects. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a thorough morphological and physiological analysis of antennae in three Clades of Blattodea. We studied morphology by evaluating the distinguishable features of the body and antenna, as well as the internal structure of the antennal lumen. Then, in a series of experiments on live cockroaches, we measured blood pressure along the antenna. This was …
Refining Treatment Thresholds Of Insect Pests In South Carolina Soybeans Using Simulated Injury And Natural Populations, Adam Whitfield
Refining Treatment Thresholds Of Insect Pests In South Carolina Soybeans Using Simulated Injury And Natural Populations, Adam Whitfield
All Dissertations
Insect pests are a major limiting factor to profitable soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., production in South Carolina, yet current economic thresholds are largely based on historical data and may not reflect modern cultivars, production practices, or input costs. Key insect pests in South Carolina can be categorized into three major feeding groups: defoliators, stem feeders, and pod feeders. Defoliating insects include, but are not limited to, soybean looper, Chrysodeixis includens (Walker); velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hubner); green cloverworm, Hypena scabra (Fabricius); grasshoppers; and numerous species of beetles. Stem feeders include, but are not limited to, kudzu bug, Megacopta cribraria …
Reproduction And Larval Development Of The Invasive Asian Longhorned Beetle In South Carolina, Lindsey A. Stone
Reproduction And Larval Development Of The Invasive Asian Longhorned Beetle In South Carolina, Lindsey A. Stone
All Theses
The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis Motschulsky; ALB) is a major threat to forest health due to the damage done by larval feeding in host trees. In 2020, ALB was discovered in Charleston County, South Carolina, which presents a novel climate for this invasive pest in North America. I investigated the reproductive biology and larval development of ALB to support detection and management efforts. By exposing 19 host trees to mated pairs of adults, I was able to determine rates of oviposition success (55%), egg viability (55%), and early larval survival (56%). On average, females chewed nearly 1 egg …
Preferred Plants And Nectar Collecting Times For Honey Production, David Macfawn, Jennifer M.K. O'Keefe, Sophie Warny, Carol Wymer, June Rampy Ponder
Preferred Plants And Nectar Collecting Times For Honey Production, David Macfawn, Jennifer M.K. O'Keefe, Sophie Warny, Carol Wymer, June Rampy Ponder
Clemson Extension Publishing
This book addresses three important questions for South Carolina beekeepers – which plants are bees in South Carolina using for nectar forage, when bees collect nectar from those plants, and how can understanding nectar foraging habits inform beekeepers as they work to gather specific types of premium honey? In 2021, the South Carolina Beekeeper’s Association, led by David MacFawn, designed and implemented a statewide pollen study, the first in any state in over fifty years, to answer these questions. Informed by data gathered from 19 apiaries across the state, this book contains the results of that study, including large-scale melissopalynological …
Understanding The Interactions Between Pollen-Borne Ilarviruses And Pollinators In Peach Orchards, Mandeep Tayal
Understanding The Interactions Between Pollen-Borne Ilarviruses And Pollinators In Peach Orchards, Mandeep Tayal
All Dissertations
Pollen-mediated virus transmission is a common problem in fruit crops. Prunus necrotic ringspot virus (PNRSV) and prune dwarf virus (PDV) are pollen-borne ilarviruses endemic to the southeastern U.S. and cause substantial losses in peach production. PNRSV and PDV are primarily transmitted through vegetative propagation (grafting) as well as via pollen and seed. However, the role of pollinators in transmission dynamics of these viruses is not well understood. First, I documented the bee diversity and abundance during peach bloom in South Carolina, identifying Bombus and Apis as the most dominant genera, followed by Eucera, Andrena and Habropoda. Bee community composition …
Evaluating The Roles Of Pollinators In Shaping The Floral Color Variation Of Phacelia Dubia, Katherine Riddle
Evaluating The Roles Of Pollinators In Shaping The Floral Color Variation Of Phacelia Dubia, Katherine Riddle
All Theses
Floral color variation within a species is a common occurrence and its maintenance has been a long-standing question in evolutionary biology. Differences in flower color between populations can be shaped by pollinator-mediated selection. Pollinators can exhibit innate and learned preferences for color that may influence floral color variation. These preferences may be molded by the visual environment in which pollinators forage. Most current understanding of how pollinators shape floral color variation involves dramatic differences in dominant pollinators between populations (e.g., hawkmoth vs. bee) and most behavioral work utilized model pollinators like honeybee and bumble bee. However, less is known about …
Lateral Dispersal Of Adult Trichoptera: Flight Distance And Traveling Pattern, Peilin Tan
Lateral Dispersal Of Adult Trichoptera: Flight Distance And Traveling Pattern, Peilin Tan
All Theses
Trichoptera species (caddisfly) are usually used as bio-indictors for surface water quality due to their sensitivity to environmental changes, and if assessing water quality with light-trapped adults, knowing their travelling patterns will improve the accuracy of such assessments. To investigate how far a caddisfly will migrate from their emerging stream, three streams in South Carolina with different widths (Wildcat Creek 1.2 m, Brasstown Creek 11.2 m and Chattooga River 26.95 m) were selected for this study with light traps placed at three distances (0 m, 50 m, 100 m) from the streams. How long and when? Both species richness and …
Systematics And Biogeography Of Shallow Subterranean Carabidae In The Eastern United States, Curt Harden
Systematics And Biogeography Of Shallow Subterranean Carabidae In The Eastern United States, Curt Harden
All Dissertations
The shallow subterranean habitats (SSHs) of the eastern United States are reviewed, along with the associated ground beetles (Carabidae). Leaf litter, deep soil, fractured rock layers, and terrestrial epikarst are the predominant SSHs inhabited by Carabidae in the region. The long enigmatic genus Horologion is found, through study of morphology and DNA sequence data, to represent a paleoendemic lineage distributed only in West Virginia and Virginia; the likely sister to Horologion is the Gondwanan tribe Bembidarenini. A new species, Horologion hubbardi sp. n., is described from several individuals collected in or near drip pools in caves; the beetles probably …
Phylogenetics And Biogeography Of Appalachian Trechus (Coleoptera: Carabidae), Patricia Wooden
Phylogenetics And Biogeography Of Appalachian Trechus (Coleoptera: Carabidae), Patricia Wooden
All Dissertations
Insects have long been used as tools for understanding the health of the natural world and how changes to climate, landscape, and human interaction have affected the communities those environments support. The Appalachian Mountains, located in eastern North America, is the oldest mountain range on the continent, and during its lifespan it has supported an abundance of microhabitats and endemic species to fill them. Conservationists must balance the need to preserve the diversity that is known and continue to explore the region for new taxa, often with limited budget and expertise. A genus of small carabids, Trechus Clairville, may aid …
Ecology And Integrated Pest Management Of Major Insect Pests Of Field Corn, Tim Bryant
Ecology And Integrated Pest Management Of Major Insect Pests Of Field Corn, Tim Bryant
All Dissertations
In the southeastern United States, the brown stink bug, Euschistus servus (Say), and the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), are common economic pests of corn, Zea mays L. (Poaceae: Poales). Although commonly found, the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is generally not an economic pest and is managed with transgenic corn hybrids expressing toxins produced by the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Resistance to Bt toxins is a major thread to the sustainability of Bt crops. Understanding the ecology of stink bugs and corn earworms in field corn can help to effectively implement integrated pest management …
Evolution And Biogeography Of High Appalachian Rove Beetles (Staphylinidae), Adam Haberski
Evolution And Biogeography Of High Appalachian Rove Beetles (Staphylinidae), Adam Haberski
All Dissertations
The southern Appalachian Mountains are a region of great species richness and a center of endemism in many taxa, including flightless arthropods. High elevation refugia have facilitated the persistence of ancient lineages (paleoendemism) and in situ speciation (neoendemism), but their ubiquity, timing, and relative importance is unknown. Congruent patterns among co-distributed, but independent taxa might illuminate common drivers of Appalachian endemism. In this dissertation, I investigated the influence of allopatric speciation, geography, and paleoclimate events on the diversification of endemic species in two genera of rove beetles (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae), Lathrobium Gravenhorst and Ischnosoma Stephens, using an integrative morphological and molecular …
Study Of Morphological And Physiological Properties And Pollinators Of The Invasive Callery Pear, Prabina Sharma
Study Of Morphological And Physiological Properties And Pollinators Of The Invasive Callery Pear, Prabina Sharma
All Theses
Callery pear is an invasive tree in 15 states of United States and is currently present in 37 states. Its management has challenged landowners and land managers. Despite being listed as a noxious weed in four states, its study is limited. The accurate estimation of Callery pear biomass will give a clearer picture of the level of invasion and help land managers develop different strategies to control its population. Similarly, identifying possible pollinators of Callery pear is essential to have some insights on pollinators associated with this tree. Hence, the objectives of this study are 1) to calculate total above-ground …
Revision, Description, And Diagnosis Of Adult And Larval Pycnopsyche Spp. (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae) Using Morphological And Molecular Methods, Matthew Green
All Dissertations
The genus Pycnopsyche Banks, 1905 (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae) is the 2nd most species-rich genus of Nearctic Limnephilidae. Larvae and adults are ecologically diverse and widespread throughout eastern North America. Larvae construct cases from mineral or plant material and are frequently used by biomonitoring professionals at the species level to monitor trends in water quality. However, only two species of Pycnopsyche are currently separable as larvae, with diagnosis limited by the number of unknown larvae associated with known adults. Using morphological and molecular data, the phylogenetic relationships among Pycnopsyche species and species groups were inferred with Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses to …
Prey Preference Of Chrysoperla Rufilabris (Burmeister) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) For Three Common Pest Species Of Greenhouse Crops, Caitlin Silva
Prey Preference Of Chrysoperla Rufilabris (Burmeister) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) For Three Common Pest Species Of Greenhouse Crops, Caitlin Silva
All Theses
Chrysoperla rufilabris (Burmeister) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) larvae are voracious generalist predators and important biological control agents on greenhouse crops. This study investigated the prey preference of second-instar C. rufilabris for three common greenhouse pests, namely the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), the Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), and the melon aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae). This study also investigated the influence of prey density ratios on the preference of C. rufilabris larvae for T. urticae and A. gossypii. Prey species preference was evaluated in no-choice, two-choice, and all-choice laboratory bioassays. In the no-choice bioassays, …
Meta-Analysis Of The Effects Of Endophytes And Their Secondary Metabolites On Herbivory From Insects, Derrick Taylor
Meta-Analysis Of The Effects Of Endophytes And Their Secondary Metabolites On Herbivory From Insects, Derrick Taylor
All Theses
Endophyte-infected plants have reduced the level of herbivory. The defense to herbivory can vary due to the metabolites in the plant and the method of feeding from the pest. Secondary metabolites produced by the endophytes are mainly alkaloids. The associations between endophytes and some alkaloid groups are studied in greater detail. The lack of research of certain alkaloid groups ultimately means that some alkaloids had more data that could be analyzed. As a result, the alkaloid groups were not evenly represented in the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis analyzed the relative effectiveness of the metabolites or endophytes in each of the articles …
Development Of A Novel Fluorescent Reporter Baculovirus Vector For Testing Promoters In Lepidopterans, Daniel Howard
Development Of A Novel Fluorescent Reporter Baculovirus Vector For Testing Promoters In Lepidopterans, Daniel Howard
All Theses
Testing gene expression patterns is an important process in learning more about an organism. The standard methods of rtPCR and RNASeq provide highly detailed data on specific expression patterns, but can be resource consuming if many different samples including genes or organisms must be tested. A potential alternative for studying expression is the use of a reporter system carried by a vector system that encodes fluorescent proteins under the control of promoters of interest. Many lepidopterans (moths) are pestiferous and better understanding of gene expression levels in lepidopterans, both endogenous and exogenous including from their viruses, would be beneficial. Baculoviruses …
Developing A Cultural Management Approach To Bermudagrass Mite (Acari: Eriophyidae) Infestation, Matthew Brown
Developing A Cultural Management Approach To Bermudagrass Mite (Acari: Eriophyidae) Infestation, Matthew Brown
All Dissertations
Bermudagrass mite (Aceria cynodoniensis Sayed) (Acari: Eriophyidae) infestation stunts bermudagrass growth, leading to thinned turf and lower aesthetic and recreational value. Cultural management practices may impact bermudagrass mite infestation and turfgrass recovery from mite damage. Scalping or mowing shorter may physically remove mites, while drought stress may increase grass susceptibility to mites. Fertilizer application may promote mite infestation by improving plant nutrition. I conducted greenhouse, nursery, and field experiments to evaluate the impact of nitrogen fertility, irrigation rate, mowing height, and scalping on turf health and bermudagrass mite infestation in terms of the densities of witch’s brooms (i.e., stunted …
Improved Molecular Detection Tools For The Invasive Crop Pest Helicoverpa Armigera (Hübner), Mitchell D. Rich
Improved Molecular Detection Tools For The Invasive Crop Pest Helicoverpa Armigera (Hübner), Mitchell D. Rich
All Theses
Helicoverpa armigera is a major crop pest native to Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa. H. armigera has recently invaded South America and has caused billions of dollars in agricultural losses. It is difficult to differentiate H. armigera from H. zea, a closely-related species native to North and South America. A few genetic tests have been previously developed to detect H. armigera DNA in pooled samples of moth legs. In this study, an improved qPCR melt curve assay with higher detection sensitivity and a field-based recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay were developed for specific detection of H. armigera DNA …
Characterization Of Larval Lepidopteran Gut Stem Cell Markers, Zilan Li
Characterization Of Larval Lepidopteran Gut Stem Cell Markers, Zilan Li
All Theses
The larval lepidopteran midgut is a complex tissue system that shows significant structure-function relationships related to its roles in digestive and absorptive processes. δ-endotoxins (Cry toxins) produced by the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis disrupt the midgut epithelium of target insects has been used extensively to control pests. However, insects, including several lepidopteran species, evolve resistance to Cry toxins which causes a great threat to their continued utility. Understanding the physiology of the midgut, including that of the stem cells which are responsible for midgut growth, development, and regeneration, may improve the sustainability of midgut-targeted control like Cry toxins. Historically, lepidopteran midgut …
Northern Giant Hornet (Vespa Mandarinia) And Yellow-Legged Hornet (Vespa Velutina), Potential Pests Of Honey Bees, Benjamin Andrew Powell
Northern Giant Hornet (Vespa Mandarinia) And Yellow-Legged Hornet (Vespa Velutina), Potential Pests Of Honey Bees, Benjamin Andrew Powell
Agricultural Education
Exotic hornets present a significant threat to apiculture. Recent introductions of the yellow-legged hornet to Europe and the asian giant hornet to North America have made it critical that regulators, beekeepers and the general public be able to detect and identify these exotic hornets and to understand their biology to minimize the potential impacts to apiculture in South Carolina were they to be introduced.
Cretonthophilus Tuberculatus , A Remarkable New Genus And Species Of Hister Beetle (Coleoptera: Histeridae) From Cretaceous Burmese Amber, Michael S. Caterino, Karin Wolf-Schwenninger, Gunter Bechly
Cretonthophilus Tuberculatus , A Remarkable New Genus And Species Of Hister Beetle (Coleoptera: Histeridae) From Cretaceous Burmese Amber, Michael S. Caterino, Karin Wolf-Schwenninger, Gunter Bechly
Publications
The early history of the beetle family Histeridae is still very obscure. In part this results from difficulty resolving phylogenetic relationships at deeper levels (Caterino & Vogler, 2002; McKenna et al., 2015a). But it is also partly a result of a sparse and poorly documented fossil record (Chatzimanolis et al., 2006). Here we describe a new genus and species of fossil histerid from Burmese amber (~99 mya), which helps to address both of these problems. Although histerid fossils have been reported from a variety of fossil localities and strata, relatively few have been adequately described. Until recently, the earliest described …
The Beetle Tree Of Life Reveals That Coleoptera Survived End-Permium Mass Extinction To Diversify During The Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution, Duane D. Mckenna, Alexander L. Wild, Kojun Kanda, Charles L. Bellamy, Rolf G. Beutel, Michael S. Caterino, Charles W. Farnum, David C. Hawks, Michael A. Ivie, Mary Liz Jameson, Richard A.B. Leschen, Adriana E. Marvaldi, Joseph V. Mchugh, Alfred F. Newton, James A. Robertson, Margaret K. Thayer, Michael F. Whiting, John F. Lawrence, Adam Ślipinski, David R. Maddison, Brian D. Farrell
The Beetle Tree Of Life Reveals That Coleoptera Survived End-Permium Mass Extinction To Diversify During The Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution, Duane D. Mckenna, Alexander L. Wild, Kojun Kanda, Charles L. Bellamy, Rolf G. Beutel, Michael S. Caterino, Charles W. Farnum, David C. Hawks, Michael A. Ivie, Mary Liz Jameson, Richard A.B. Leschen, Adriana E. Marvaldi, Joseph V. Mchugh, Alfred F. Newton, James A. Robertson, Margaret K. Thayer, Michael F. Whiting, John F. Lawrence, Adam Ślipinski, David R. Maddison, Brian D. Farrell
Publications
Here we present a phylogeny of beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera) based on DNA sequence data from eight nuclear genes, including six single-copy nuclear protein-coding genes, for 367 species representing 172 of 183 extant families. Our results refine existing knowledge of relationships among major groups of beetles. Strepsiptera was confirmed as sister to Coleoptera and each of the suborders of Coleoptera was recovered as monophyletic. Interrelationships among the suborders, namely Polyphaga (Adephaga (Archostemata, Myxophaga)), in our study differ from previous studies. Adephaga comprised two clades corresponding to Hydradephaga and Geadephaga. The series and superfamilies of Polyphaga were mostly monophyletic. The traditional Cucujoidea …
Extant! Living Bembidion Palosverdes Kavanaugh And Erwin (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Found On Santa Catalina Island, California Full Access, Michael S. Caterino, Katie J. Caterino, David R. Maddison
Extant! Living Bembidion Palosverdes Kavanaugh And Erwin (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Found On Santa Catalina Island, California Full Access, Michael S. Caterino, Katie J. Caterino, David R. Maddison
Publications
Kavanaugh and Erwin (1992) described Bembidion palosverdes from seven specimens from two localities on the Palos Verdes Peninsula, Los Angeles Co., CA (Pt. Vicente, ∼33.741°N, 118.411°W, and Pt. Fermin, ∼33.705°N, 118.294°W), collected in June 1964 by Derham Giuliani. The species' authors spent two days searching for specimens at the two known localities, but found no additional specimens. They suggested that the species may have become extinct prior to its formal description, citing a major 1969 oil spill as a potential factor.
Life History And Natural Enemies Of Parthenolecanium Spp. In Four Southeastern States, Ernesto Robayo Camacho
Life History And Natural Enemies Of Parthenolecanium Spp. In Four Southeastern States, Ernesto Robayo Camacho
All Dissertations
Soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae) are some of the most prevalent and difficult to control arthropod pests in urban landscapes of the southern United States. European fruit lecanium, Parthenolecanium corni (Bouche), and oak lecanium, Parthenolecanium quercifex (Fitch), are commonly found in mixed populations as pests of oak trees (Quercus spp.) in the region. The phenology and natural enemies of the two species are poorly understood, which in turn hinders pest managers' ability to develop an integrated management program against these species. This research project aims to fill the information gaps concerning the life history and natural enemies of P. corni and …
Evaluation Of Foraging Patterns Of Linepithema Humile (Mayr), The Argentine Ant, To Improve Bait Placement In Natural Park Habitats, Jinbo Song
All Dissertations
Linepithema humile (Mayr), the Argentine ant, is an invasive ant species and a significant pest in natural and managed habitats of the southeastern United States. In the natural sites of Lake Greenwood State Park (LGSP) in the Piedmont region of South Carolina, L. humile has invaded. Although park personnel treat problem areas with liquid insecticides, control of L. humile through the park areas is minimal. The primary objectives of this study were to determine the optimal foraging distance of L. humile, evaluate over-wintering nest temperatures and foraging activity of L. humile, and evaluate liquid bait placement to control L. humile. …
On The Origins Of The Insect Fauna Of California's Channel Islands: A Comparative Phylogeographic Study Of Island Beetles, Michael S. Caterino, Stylianos Chatzimanolis, Maxi Polihronakis Richmond
On The Origins Of The Insect Fauna Of California's Channel Islands: A Comparative Phylogeographic Study Of Island Beetles, Michael S. Caterino, Stylianos Chatzimanolis, Maxi Polihronakis Richmond
Publications
California’s 8 Channel Islands host a large diversity of insects, the vast majority of which are shared with mainland southern California. The existence of a small number of recognized endemic species, however, suggest that, for some lineages, the islands are isolated enough to have permitted significant differentiation. Here we investigate the phylogeographic relationships of 4 beetle species (Thinopinus pictus, Hadrotes crassus, Hypocaccus lucidulus, and Nyctoporis carinata): all occurring on the mainland and on multiple (up to 6) Channel Islands. Sequences of the cytochrome oxidase I mitochondrial gene (and, for one species, an intron in the …
Biology And Control Of The Bed Bug Cimex Lectularius L., Kevin Hinson
Biology And Control Of The Bed Bug Cimex Lectularius L., Kevin Hinson
All Dissertations
After vanishing from the public eye for more than 50 years, bed bugs have resurged to become one of the most widely discussed and heavily researched insect pests in the westernized world. Our inability to prevent and successfully treat infestations has been the driving force behind this wave of research. I addressed gaps in our understanding of bed bugs by examining behavioral and life history characteristics, as well as insecticide application responses. I showed that natural-based products are generally ineffective against bed bugs, particularly when used as a residual treatment. I also found that bed bugs may be killed through …