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Articles 1 - 30 of 197
Full-Text Articles in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Isotopic Discrimination In The Double-Crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax Auritus), Elizabeth C. Craig, Brian S. Dorr, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, Jed P. Sparks, Paul D. Curtis
Isotopic Discrimination In The Double-Crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax Auritus), Elizabeth C. Craig, Brian S. Dorr, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, Jed P. Sparks, Paul D. Curtis
Brian S Dorr
The diet-tissue discrimination factor is the amount by which a consumer’s tissue varies isotopically from its diet, and is therefore a key element in models that use stable isotopes to estimate diet composition. In this study we measured discrimination factors in blood (whole blood, red blood cells and plasma), liver, muscle and feathers of Double- crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) for stable isotope ratios of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. Cormorants exhibited discrimination factors that differed significantly among tissue types (for carbon and nitrogen), and differed substantially (in the context of the isotopic variation among relevant prey species) from those observed in …
Rooted In Hell: Simulating Phragmites Australis, Rachel Nydegger Rozum, Jacob Duncan, James Powell Ph.D.
Rooted In Hell: Simulating Phragmites Australis, Rachel Nydegger Rozum, Jacob Duncan, James Powell Ph.D.
Rachel Nydegger Rozum
Across the estuaries of the east coast and wetlands of the Great Lakes, the invasive grass Phragmites australis outcompetes other vegetation and destroys local ecosystems. Because its roots are tolerant to salinity that other plants find hellish, Phragmites invasions begin with vegetative spread of genetic clones in brackish marshlands.This plant can grow over three meters tall at densities of 50 stems/m2, provides poor wildlife habitat, and is very difficult to eradicate. A discrete life stage model on a yearly time step captures seed survivorship in a seed bank, sexual and asexual recruitment into a juvenile age class, and differential competition …
Influence Of Simulated Double-Crested Cormorant, Phalacrocorax Auritus, Predation On Multiple-Batch Production Of Channel Catfish, Ictalurus Punctatus, Brian S. Dorr, Carole R. Engle
Influence Of Simulated Double-Crested Cormorant, Phalacrocorax Auritus, Predation On Multiple-Batch Production Of Channel Catfish, Ictalurus Punctatus, Brian S. Dorr, Carole R. Engle
Brian S Dorr
The double-crested cormorant, Phalacrocorax auritus, is considered the primary depredating bird species on commercially produced channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in the southeastern USA. We simulated different levels of cormorant predation on losses at harvest and economic effects on channel catfish production in a multiple-batch cropping system. We observed significant (P<0.05) declines in catfish production at increasing levels of cormorant predation in this study. This decline was mitigated by increased individual growth of catfish at higher predation rates (i.e., lower catfish densities). This mitigating effect produced a non-linear relationship with total kg of catfish harvested per pond resulting in a non-linear incremental increase in breakeven price related to predation. Costs of production ($/kg) increased with increasing predation levels up to very high levels of predation with a cumulative maximum increase in breakeven price of $0.143/kg. These results indicate that losses at harvest due to cormorant predation occur immediately but are mitigated in part by compensatory growth of individual catfish. Losses due to cormorant predation in multi-batch systems can be considerable, but there is not a 1:1 relationship between losses and kg of catfish harvested due to compensatory actors.
Influence Of Current Land Use And Edaphic Factors On Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (Am) Hyphal Abundance And Soil Organic Matter In And Near Serengeti National Park, Geofrey Soka, Mark Ritchie, Emilian Mayemba
Influence Of Current Land Use And Edaphic Factors On Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (Am) Hyphal Abundance And Soil Organic Matter In And Near Serengeti National Park, Geofrey Soka, Mark Ritchie, Emilian Mayemba
Geofrey Soka
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important microbial symbionts for plants especially when soil phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) are limited. Little is known about the distribution of AM hyphae in natural systems of tropical soils across landscapes and their association with different land uses. We studied mycorrhizal hyphal abundance in a wildlife grazed system, a livestock grazed system and under cultivated soils in and near Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Samples of the upper 15 cm of soil beneath locally dominant plant species were collected. Hyphae were preserved on permanent slides and the length of hyphae per cubic centimeter of soil …
Impacts Of Colonial Waterbirds On Vegetation And Potential Restoration Of Island Habitats, Christopher R. Ayers, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, Sadie O'Dell, Charles D. Lovell, Michael L. Jones, Jason R. Suckow, Brian S. Dorr
Impacts Of Colonial Waterbirds On Vegetation And Potential Restoration Of Island Habitats, Christopher R. Ayers, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, Sadie O'Dell, Charles D. Lovell, Michael L. Jones, Jason R. Suckow, Brian S. Dorr
Brian S Dorr
Colonial waterbirds have impacted forested island ecosystems throughout their breeding range, changing vegetation, and soil characteristics and bird communities.Our objectives were to (1) determine effects of three levels of colonial waterbird exclusion on overall vegetation diversity and growth, and survival of a candidate restoration species (black elderberry; Sambucus nigra canadensis); (2) investigate effects of different planting techniques on survival and growth of black elderberry; and (3) determine effects of waterbird colonization on soil chemistry. In 2012, we investigated effects of three levels of waterbird exclusion (none control plots [CON]; partial, which excluded waterbirds larger than gulls [PEX]; and full which …
Slotted Drainage Pipe For Sub-Irrigation, David A. Bainbridge
Slotted Drainage Pipe For Sub-Irrigation, David A. Bainbridge
David A Bainbridge
Subirrigation with drainage pipe was effective for planting a windbreak in the Mojave Desert. The pipe was refilled periodically with a water truck. Survival was very good.
Preliminary Home Range Study Of Juvenile Chinese Horseshoe Crabs, Tachypleus Tridentatus (Xiphosura), Using Passive Tracking Methods, Kit Yue Kwan, Pks Shin, Sg Cheung
Preliminary Home Range Study Of Juvenile Chinese Horseshoe Crabs, Tachypleus Tridentatus (Xiphosura), Using Passive Tracking Methods, Kit Yue Kwan, Pks Shin, Sg Cheung
KWAN Kit Yue, Billy
Three passive tracking methods, using colored plastic tag (CPT), passive integrated transponder (PIT) tag, and CPT plus PIT were compared to track the movements of juvenile Chinese horseshoe crabs, Tachypleus tridentatus, in summer 2013 on a mudflat in Hong Kong. The study site was re-visited within 2 months after the release of the tagged individuals on ten occasions during low tides. The cumulative recovery rates of the tagged juveniles ranged from 70 to 82 %, with the number of position fixes where each individual was recovered during the repeated field visits varying from one to seven. Based on the adaptive …
Social Sciences, Not Given
Wintering Ecology Of Adult North American Ospreys, Brian E. Washburn, Charles J. Henny, Mark S. Martell, Richard O. Bierregaard, Brian S. Dorr, Thomas J. Olexa
Wintering Ecology Of Adult North American Ospreys, Brian E. Washburn, Charles J. Henny, Mark S. Martell, Richard O. Bierregaard, Brian S. Dorr, Thomas J. Olexa
Brian S Dorr
North American Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) typically migrate long distances to their wintering grounds in the tropics. Beyond the general distribution of their wintering range (i.e., the Caribbean, South America, and Central America), very little is known about the wintering ecology of these birds. We used satellite telemetry to determine the duration of wintering period, to examine the characteristics of wintering areas used by Ospreys, and to quantify space use and activity patterns of wintering Ospreys. Adult Ospreys migrated to wintering sites and exhibited high wintering site fidelity among years. Overall, Ospreys wintered on river systems (50.6%) more than on lakes …
Geographic Segregation And Evidence Of Density-Dependent Changes In Sex Ratios In An Abundant Colonial Waterbird, Brian S. Dorr, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, Travis L. Devault, Alban Guillaumet, Scott C. Barras
Geographic Segregation And Evidence Of Density-Dependent Changes In Sex Ratios In An Abundant Colonial Waterbird, Brian S. Dorr, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, Travis L. Devault, Alban Guillaumet, Scott C. Barras
Brian S Dorr
Demographic information, such as geographic segregation of sexes and sex ratio data, is needed to develop, model and evaluate conservation and management strategies for wildlife. A variety of physiological, behavioral and environmental factors can influence segregation of sexes and sex ratios, many of which originate with density- dependent processes. Departure from 50:50 sex ratios of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) collected during control efforts in breeding and wintering areas across their eastern range of the USA were evaluated using using a Z-test as well as Stouffer’s weighted Z-tests. In addition, a specifically-designed randomization test was used to evaluate density-dependent effects on …
Mitigation Site Soil Characteristics And The Effects Of Inoculation, Nursery Fertilizer Practices And Irrigation On Survival And Growth Of Mesquite (Prosopis Glandulosa) In The Coachella Valley, California, David A. Bainbridge, Marcelle M. Darby
Mitigation Site Soil Characteristics And The Effects Of Inoculation, Nursery Fertilizer Practices And Irrigation On Survival And Growth Of Mesquite (Prosopis Glandulosa) In The Coachella Valley, California, David A. Bainbridge, Marcelle M. Darby
David A Bainbridge
Prosopis glandulosa var. torreyana (mesquite, honey mesquite) is a small to medium sized leguminous tree that was once common in the low desert of California. Widespread destruction of mesquite woodlands in the Coachella Valley of southern California for fuel wood, agricultural and urban development, and urbanization has reduced once vast stands to isolated remnants. The rerouting and widening of Highway 86 in the Coachella Valley was a typical example of ongoing mesquite woodland removal. Despite the recognized need for mitigation, relatively little information on mesquite establishment in California is available. This research explored mesquite establishment by replanting on an abandoned …
Mass And Nutrient Loss In Decaying Hardwood Boles At Hubbard Brook, Chris E. Johnson
Mass And Nutrient Loss In Decaying Hardwood Boles At Hubbard Brook, Chris E. Johnson
Chris E Johnson
No abstract provided.
Effects Of Prey Abundance On Breeding Season Diet Of Northern Goshawks (Accipiter Gentilis) Within An Unusual Prey Landscape, Robert A. Miller, Jay D. Carlisle, Marc J. Bechard
Effects Of Prey Abundance On Breeding Season Diet Of Northern Goshawks (Accipiter Gentilis) Within An Unusual Prey Landscape, Robert A. Miller, Jay D. Carlisle, Marc J. Bechard
Robert Miller
A critical element of diet analysis is species adaptability to alternative prey sources. The breeding season diet of Northern Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) includes both mammalian and avian species, varies geographically, and is often dependent upon tree squirrels of the genera Sciurus and Tamiasciurus>/i>. We studied alternative prey sources of Northern Goshawks in the South Hills of south-central Idaho, an area where tree squirrels are naturally absent and other prey frequently important in the diet of goshawks, such as smaller corvids, are uncommon. We quantified the diet of goshawks using nest cameras and surveyed abundance of prey using line …
Avian Influenza Virus Prevalence In Migratory Waterfowl In The United States, 2007-2009, Scott R. Groepper Mr., Thomas Deliberto, Mark Vrtiska, Kerri Pedersen, Seth Swafford, Scott Hyngstrom
Avian Influenza Virus Prevalence In Migratory Waterfowl In The United States, 2007-2009, Scott R. Groepper Mr., Thomas Deliberto, Mark Vrtiska, Kerri Pedersen, Seth Swafford, Scott Hyngstrom
Scott R Groepper
SUMMARY. We analyzed 155,535 samples collected for surveillance of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), in the United States from 2007 to 2009, from migratory waterfowl (ducks, geese, and swans). The goal was to elucidate patterns of prevalence by flyway and functional groups to determine targets for future surveillance. Apparent prevalence of AIV was highest in the Pacific Flyway in 2007–2008 (14.2% and 14.1%, respectively), in the Mississippi Flyway in 2009 (16.8%), and lowest each year in the Atlantic Flyway (range, 7.3%–8.9%). Dabbling ducks had higher apparent prevalence of AIV (12.8%–18.8%) than diving ducks (3.9%–6.0%) or geese and swans (3.6%–3.9%). We observed …
Recreating Mesquite Mounds (Nebkas) In The Colorado Desert, David A. Bainbridge
Recreating Mesquite Mounds (Nebkas) In The Colorado Desert, David A. Bainbridge
David A Bainbridge
Accretion dunes or mounds (also known as nebkas or nebkhas) are formed when plants capture and then are partially buried in wind-blown sand. In the San Felipe drainage in the western Colorado Desert, mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa Torrey var. torreyana (L. D. Benson) M. C. Johnston)) forms dunes up to 5 m high. These are ecologically important for both ecosystem structure (primarily habitat) and function (soil accumulation, moisture retention and nutrient cycling). The widening of California state highway 86 damaged and removed several mesquite mounds and the California Department of Transportation asked us to explore techniques for recreating them to reduce …
Resolution Of Deep Nodes Yields An Improved Backbone Phylogeny And A New Basal Lineage To Study Early Evolution Of Asteraceae, Jose L. Panero, Susana E. Freire, Luis Ariza Espinar, Bonnie S. Crozier, Gloria E. Barboza, Juan J. Cantero
Resolution Of Deep Nodes Yields An Improved Backbone Phylogeny And A New Basal Lineage To Study Early Evolution Of Asteraceae, Jose L. Panero, Susana E. Freire, Luis Ariza Espinar, Bonnie S. Crozier, Gloria E. Barboza, Juan J. Cantero
Jose L. Panero
A backbone phylogeny that fully resolves all subfamily and deeper nodes of Asteraceae was constructed using 14 chloroplast DNA loci. The recently named genus Famatinanthus was found to be sister to the Mutisioideae–Asteroideae clade that represents more than 99% of Asteraceae and was found to have the two chloroplast inversions present in all Asteraceae except the nine genera of Barnadesioideae. A monotypic subfamily Famatinanthoideae and tribe Famatinantheae are named herein as new. Relation- ships among the basal lineages of the family were resolved with strong support in the Bayesian analysis as (Barnadesioideae (Famatinanthoideae (Mutisioideae (Stifftioideae (Wunderlichioideae– Asteroideae))))). Ancestral state reconstruction …
Architecture Of Ponderosa Pine Bark In Relation To Spalling Behavior, Eric R. Force
Architecture Of Ponderosa Pine Bark In Relation To Spalling Behavior, Eric R. Force
Eric R Force
Shedding/spalling behavior of ponderosa bark, with or without fire impetus, is primarily a function of the geometry of individual bark pieces, which are stable laterally due to their digitate shapes, and metastable radially due to flanges around the base of each piece. In detail, each piece is a zoned envelope of distinctive elements, separated from other pieces by another element. Different physical properties of these elements are probably involved in bark-piece expulsion, which requires sequential flange release. Criteria to determine any role of fire in bark-piece expulsion are described.
The Cumulative Effects Of Management On The Population Dynamics Of The Double-Crested Cormorant Phalacrocorax Auritus In The Great Lakes, Alban Guillaumet, Brian S. Dorr, Guiming Wang, Terry J. Doyle
The Cumulative Effects Of Management On The Population Dynamics Of The Double-Crested Cormorant Phalacrocorax Auritus In The Great Lakes, Alban Guillaumet, Brian S. Dorr, Guiming Wang, Terry J. Doyle
Brian S Dorr
Wildlife species have been subject to control efforts throughout human history due to real or alleged human–wildlife conflicts. The Double-crested Cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus in the interior of North America is no exception, with recent population growth leading to increased conflicts and consequently the development of many control programmes. These control programmes are usually conducted at local scales, often with little or no effort to assess their cumulative effects at the population level. We attempted the first comprehensive assessment of the cumulative effects of control at various spatio-temporal scales, focusing on 199 colonies of Double-crested Cormorant monitored during a 29-year period. …
Effects Of Disturbance And Climate Change On Ecosystem Performance In The Yukon River Basin Boreal Forest, Bruce K. Wylie, Matthew Rigge, Brian Brisco, Kevin Murnaghan, Jennifer A. Rover
Effects Of Disturbance And Climate Change On Ecosystem Performance In The Yukon River Basin Boreal Forest, Bruce K. Wylie, Matthew Rigge, Brian Brisco, Kevin Murnaghan, Jennifer A. Rover
Bruce K. Wylie
A warming climate influences boreal forest productivity, dynamics, and disturbance regimes. We used ecosystem models and 250 m satellite Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data averaged over the growing season (GSN) to model current, and estimate future, ecosystem performance. We modeled Expected Ecosystem Performance (EEP), or anticipated productivity, in undisturbed stands over the 2000–2008 period from a variety of abiotic data sources, using a rule-based piecewise regression tree. The EEP model was applied to a future climate ensemble A1B projection to quantify expected changes to mature boreal forest performance. Ecosystem Performance Anomalies (EPA), were identified as the residuals of the …
Transmission Of Ranavirus Between Ectothermic Vertebrate Hosts, R Brenes, Matt J. Gray, T B. Waltzek, Rebecca P. Wilkes, Debra L. Miller
Transmission Of Ranavirus Between Ectothermic Vertebrate Hosts, R Brenes, Matt J. Gray, T B. Waltzek, Rebecca P. Wilkes, Debra L. Miller
Debra L Miller
Transmission is an essential process that contributes to the survival of pathogens. Ranaviruses are known to infect different classes of lower vertebrates including amphibians, fishes and reptiles. Differences in the likelihood of infection among ectothermic vertebrate hosts could explain the successful yearlong persistence of ranaviruses in aquatic environments. The goal of this study was to determine if transmission of a Frog Virus 3 (FV3)-like ranavirus was possible among three species from different ectothermic vertebrate classes: Cope's gray treefrog (Hyla chrysoscelis) larvae, mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), and red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans). We housed individuals previously exposed to the FV3-like ranavirus …
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis And Ecosystem Processes: Prospects For Future Research In Tropical Soils, Geofrey Soka, Mark Ritchie
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis And Ecosystem Processes: Prospects For Future Research In Tropical Soils, Geofrey Soka, Mark Ritchie
Geofrey Soka
No abstract provided.
Geoecology, Nishanta Rajakaruna, S. Boyd
Water Stress Strengthens Mutualism Among Ants, Trees, And Scale Insects, Elizabeth G. Pringle, Erol Akc¸Ay, Ted K. Raab, Rodolfo Dirzo, Deborah M. Gordon
Water Stress Strengthens Mutualism Among Ants, Trees, And Scale Insects, Elizabeth G. Pringle, Erol Akc¸Ay, Ted K. Raab, Rodolfo Dirzo, Deborah M. Gordon
Ted K. Raab
Abiotic environmental variables strongly affect the outcomes of species interactions. For example, mutualistic interactions between species are often stronger when resources are limited. The effect might be indirect: water stress on plants can lead to carbon stress, which could alter carbon-mediated plant mutualisms. In mutualistic ant–plant symbioses, plants host ant colonies that defend them against herbivores. Here we show that the partners’ investments in a widespread ant–plant symbiosis increase with water stress across 26 sites along a Mesoamerican precipitation gradient. At lower precipitation levels, Cordia alliodora trees invest more carbon in Azteca ants via phloem-feeding scale insects that provide the …
Evaluation Of The Utility Of Deciduous Molar Morphological Variation In Great Ape Phylogenetic Analysis, Anna M. Hardin, Scott S. Legge
Evaluation Of The Utility Of Deciduous Molar Morphological Variation In Great Ape Phylogenetic Analysis, Anna M. Hardin, Scott S. Legge
Scott Legge
Non-metric dental traits are well- established tools for anthropologists investigating population affiliation and movement in humans. Nonetheless, similar traits in the great apes have received considerably less attention. The present study provides data on non-metric trait variability in the deciduous molars of great apes from museum context. Twenty-eight traits are observed in the upper and lower deciduous molars in specimens of Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla, and Gorilla beringei. These groups are compared based on trait frequencies and mean measures of divergence. This study demonstrates the variability of non-metric traits in the deciduous molars of chimpanzees and gorillas. These …
Will Hubbard Brook Soils Be A Source Or Sink Of Carbon In A Changing Climate?, Chris E. Johnson
Will Hubbard Brook Soils Be A Source Or Sink Of Carbon In A Changing Climate?, Chris E. Johnson
Chris E Johnson
No abstract provided.
The Contribution Of Fe (Iii) And Humic Acid Reduction To Ecosystem Respiration In Drained Thaw Lake Basins Of The Arctic Coastal Plain, David A. Lipson, Ted K. Raab, Dominic Goria, Jaime Zlamal
The Contribution Of Fe (Iii) And Humic Acid Reduction To Ecosystem Respiration In Drained Thaw Lake Basins Of The Arctic Coastal Plain, David A. Lipson, Ted K. Raab, Dominic Goria, Jaime Zlamal
Ted K. Raab
Previous research showed that anaerobic respiration using iron (Fe) oxides as terminal electron acceptor contributed substantially to ecosystem respiration (ER) in a drained thaw lake basin (DTLB) on the Arctic coastal plain. As DTLB age, the surface organic layer thickens, progressively burying the Fe-rich mineral layers. We therefore hypothesized that Fe (III) availability and Fe reduction would decline with basin age. We studied four DTLB across an age gradient, comparing seasonal changes in the oxidation state of dissolved and extractable Fe pools and the estimated contribution of Fe reduction to ER. The organic layer thickness did not strictly increase with …
Metagenomic Insights Into Anaerobic Metabolism Along An Arctic Peat Soil Profile, David A. Lipson, John M. Haggerty, Archana Srinivas, Ted K. Raab, Shashank Sathe, Elizabeth A. Dinsdale
Metagenomic Insights Into Anaerobic Metabolism Along An Arctic Peat Soil Profile, David A. Lipson, John M. Haggerty, Archana Srinivas, Ted K. Raab, Shashank Sathe, Elizabeth A. Dinsdale
Ted K. Raab
A metagenomic analysis was performed on a soil profile from a wet tundra site in northern Alaska. The goal was to link existing biogeochemical knowledge of the system with the organisms and genes responsible for the relevant metabolic pathways. We specifically investigated how the importance of iron (Fe) oxides and humic substances (HS) as terminal electron acceptors in this ecosystem is expressed genetically, and how respiratory and fermentative processes varied with soil depth into the active layer and into the upper permafrost. Overall, the metagenomes reflected a microbial community enriched in a diverse range of anaerobic pathways, with a preponderance …
Real And Perceived Damage By Wild Turkeys: A Literature Review, Scott R. Groepper, Scott E. Hygnstrom Dr, Brandon Houck, Stephen M. Vantassel
Real And Perceived Damage By Wild Turkeys: A Literature Review, Scott R. Groepper, Scott E. Hygnstrom Dr, Brandon Houck, Stephen M. Vantassel
Scott R Groepper
As populations of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) have increased, the number of complaints about damage has increased. We conducted a literature review to determine real and perceived damage caused by wild turkeys in North America. Wild turkeys can cause damage to agricultural crops, such as corn (Zea mays L.), soybeans (Glycine max [L.] Merrill), wheat, and hay crops but the majority of actual damage is usually minor or caused by other wildlife, thus estimates of damage by wild turkeys often are inflated. Occasionally, wild turkeys damage specialty crops, turfgrass, or ornamental flowers that may have higher value than common agricultural …
Site Assessment For Environmental Restoration, David A. Bainbridge
Site Assessment For Environmental Restoration, David A. Bainbridge
David A Bainbridge
Restoring degraded desert ecosystems is challenging but it can be done. The first key step is understanding the site history and understanding the disturbance and current site conditions. With this information the appropriate steps can be taken to improve the site ecosystem function and structure.
The Hudson’S Bay Company Brigades Of 1832-33 And The Malaria Epidemic In California, David A. Bainbridge
The Hudson’S Bay Company Brigades Of 1832-33 And The Malaria Epidemic In California, David A. Bainbridge
David A Bainbridge
The ecological and cultural impacts of the Hudson’s Bay Company fur brigades to California were long term and important, but the expedition of 1832-33 caused a catastrophe by introducing the intermittent fever. The “intermittent fever” led to mortality rates from 50-90 percent or more, and it is likely more than 30,000 people died from the fever in the affected areas of California.