Biology Commons^™

Squid Paralarvae Turn With High Agility Using Jets Near The Reynolds Number Threshold For Viscous Domination, Ian K. Bartol, Alissa M. Ganley, Paul S. Krueger, Joseph T. Thompson

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Turning is critical for survival in the ocean, as marine animals need to maneuver to capture prey, elude predators, and navigate complex environments. While prior research has focused on turning performance of adult swimmers, less is known about early ontogenetic stages that locomote within lower Reynolds number (Re) regimes, especially young jetters. To evaluate squid paralarval turning proficiency and the role of the pulsed jet in maneuvers, recently hatched longfin squid Doryteuthis pealeii swimming in a viewing chamber were studied using digital particle image velocimetry and kinematic motion analyses. Paralarvae exhibited a wide repertoire of turning behaviors, including those performed …

Genome-Wide Snp Analyses Reveal High Gene Flow Of Endemic Smallscale Croaker (Boesemania Microlepsis) In The Lower Mekong Basin, Quyen Dang Ha Vu, Christopher E. Bird, Oanh Thi Truong, Sang Quang Tran, Ellen E. Biesack, Amanda S. Ackiss, Kent E. Carpenter, Binh Truy Dang

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

The Smallscale Croaker, Boesemania microlepis, is a valuable fishery resource in the Mekong River basin that lacks clear biological data to understand its basic ecology and conservation management priorities. This species is common in the southernmost floodplain of the Mekong which extends from Tonlé Sap in Cambodia to the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. This floodplain is of particular biodiversity conservation concern because of the many upstream dams that restrict water flow in an ecology that relies heavily on a flood-pulse cycle. The literature regarding the biology B. microlepis in this region contains conflicting ideas that populations are both highly …

Intraspecific Variation In Plant–Fungal Interactions Across Tidal Elevation In A Salt Marsh, Torrie Hanley, Catherine Gehring, Ron Deckert, Behzad Mortazavi, Christina Richards, A. Randall Hughes

Biology Faculty Publications

Interspecific interactions vary depending on environmental and genetic factors, with intraspecific variation potentially altering these relationships. Specifically, intraspecific variation within host plants and their endosymbionts may affect above- and belowground interactions depending on environmental conditions. We examined how intraspecific variation within the salt marsh foundation species Spartina alterniflora and a common fungal root endosymbiont (Lulworthia sp.) affected their interactions. We conducted a glasshouse experiment comparing interactions between Spartina growth forms (tall-form from low marsh and short-form from high marsh) and Lulworthia isolates from different marsh locations, and a laboratory experiment exposing Lulworthia isolates from both endpoints of a tidal elevation …

Comparing The Development And Viability Of Horseshoe Crab Eggs Laid In Beach And Salt Marsh Habitats, Daniel A. Sasson, Christopher C. Chabot, Jo-Marie Kasinak, Jennifer Mattei Ph.D., Elizabeth U. Scott, Fletcher K. Hall, Michael R. Kendrick

Biology Faculty Publications

The horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus, has recently been found to spawn regularly in salt marshes, despite the long-held assumption that salt marsh sediments are not conducive for embryonic development. Here, we tested the prediction that eggs laid in the salt marsh would develop more slowly and be less viable than eggs laid on beaches. We flagged the nests of spawning horseshoe crabs in the marshes and beaches of three states—South Carolina, Connecticut, and New Hampshire—and then excavated those nests one or three weeks later. We staged the excavated embryos to compare developmental progress between marshes and beaches. We found …

Spectral Divergence Prioritizes Key Classes, Genes, And Pathways Shared Between Substance Use Disorders And Cardiovascular Disease, Everest Castaneda, Elissa Chesler, Erich J. Baker

Funded Scholarship

Substance use disorders (SUDs) are heterogeneous diseases with 

overlapping biological mechanisms and often present with co-occurring disease, 

such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). Gene networks associated with SUDs 

also implicate additional biological pathways and may be used to stratify 

disease subtypes. Node and edge arrangements within gene networks impact 

comparisons between classes of disease, and connectivity metrics, such as 

those focused on degrees, betweenness, and centrality, do not yield sufficient 

discernment of disease network classification. Comparatively, the graph 

spectrum’s use of comprehensive information facilitates hypothesis testing 

and inter-disease clustering by using a larger range of graph characteristics. 

By adding a connectivity-based …

Symbiodiniaceae Shifts Over The Last Decade On The Hottest Coral Reefs On Earth, Anna Fiesinger, Rachel Alderdice, Luigi Colin, Hannah Manns, Gabriela Perna, Kathryn H. Stankiewicz, Jacob J. Valenzuela, Line K. Bay, Daniel J. Barshis, Nitin S. Baliga, Iliana B. Baums, John A. Burt, Christian R. Voolstra

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Corals in the Persian/Arabian Gulf (PAG) are resilient to various stressors, whose levels exceed those of coral reefs globally. These corals thereby offer insight into mechanisms underlying thermal resilience, e.g., regarding the role of endosymbiotic microalgae in the family Symbiodiniaceae. Previous studies have identified the thermotolerant species Cladocopium thermophilum as broadly associated with corals in the southern PAG. However, algal-host specificity at the within-species level and the temporal stability of these associations are not well understood. Here we sampled two dominant stony corals (Porites harrisoni, n = 119 and Platygyra daedalea, n = 79) at three sites …

Patterns Of Kinship And Sociality In North American River Otters, Whitney E. Vickers

Cal Poly Humboldt theses and projects

Previous studies of river otters (Lontra canadensis) in coastal Humboldt County, California have documented varying social group compositions over the last four decades. It has been assumed that otters travel between coastal wetland sites, but the extent of movement has been unknown. Socially, river otters have been observed alone, in small family groups that consisted of an otter mom and pup(s), in larger helper groups that consisted of an otter mom, pup(s), and at least one additional adult or juvenile (helpers), and in all-adult social groups. Until now it was unknown whether the composition of social groups was …

The Role Of Floodplain Complexity In Wood Turtle Habitat Use, Laura S. Deming

Antioch University Dissertations & Theses

Wood turtles occupy cold, low-gradient riverine habitat throughout the northeastern United State and southeastern Canada. Stream alterations, such as dams, channel straightening, and floodplain development have diminished the natural hydrologic and sedimentation regimes that result in complex channel and floodplain geomorphology. Studies throughout the species’ range have quantified many aspects of their habitat, but none have quantified components of geomorphology of wood turtle sites. The goal of this study was to explore the role of stream channel and floodplain geomorphology in wood turtle habitat use, with specific objectives to (1) quantify components of stream channel and floodplain geomorphic complexity, (2) …

Half Of The Habitat Of Australia's Highly Imperilled Narrow-Range Species Is Outside Protected Areas, Michelle Ward, Martine Maron, Jeremy S. Simmonds, Mark Lintermans, Nick S. Whiterod, David G. Chapple, Hugh P. Possingham, Sarah M. Legge, Rachael V. Gallagher, Brendan A. Wintle, Samantha Vine, Kita Ashman, Conrad J. Hoskin, Stephen T. Garnett, John C.Z. Woinarski, Ben C. Scheele, Cerin Loane, James A. Fitzsimons, Romola R. Stewart, Ayesha I.T. Tulloch, Isabel T. Hyman, Kate Pearce, Allan H. Burbidge, Tarmo A. Raadik, Gerald Kuchling, Arthur Georges

Research outputs 2022 to 2026

Globally, species with small distributions face disproportionate extinction risk, with the impacts of land use change more likely to have catastrophic consequences. Identifying, protecting and managing sites where such species occur is essential for minimising their extinction risk. Yet across Australia, efforts to protect and manage such species' habitats have hitherto been insufficient. Here, we present an example of an analytical and interpretive pathway for the conservation of such species, for a continental-scale case study. We identified 305 Critically Endangered species that have narrow ranges (<20,000 km2), and are distributed in fewer than six discrete patches. We refined existing species' habitat maps with advice from 18 experts via a modified Delphi approach. We assessed how much of each species' habitat is outside protected areas and considered to have agricultural capability, potentially elevating risk of conversion. We identified ∼85,000 km2 of habitat (∼1% of Australia) for these 305 species that must receive protection and management if the nation is going to meet its commitment to halt new extinctions. Approximately half of this habitat is outside the protected area estate, including the entire distribution of 39 species. Approximately 55% of habitat outside of protected areas had at least some agricultural capability. Protecting and managing the habitats of these narrow-range species should be a high priority in state and national conservation policy. Our case study serves as a template for the identification of important habitat for threatened species and could be applied in other regions of the world.

Detection Of Vkorc1 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Indicates The Presence Of Anticoagulant Rodenticide Resistance In Australia's Introduced Rats, Alicia F. Gorbould, Quinton F. Burnham, Michael T. Lohr, Annette Koenders

Research outputs 2022 to 2026

BACKGROUND: Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used globally to manage pest rodent populations. However, resistance to ARs in target rodent populations challenges pest control efforts and can increase risks to nontarget species. Resistance is frequently associated with nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) in the Vkorc1 gene, and this study carried out the first Vkorc1 survey of introduced rats on the Australian mainland. RESULTS: We identified three species of introduced rat using the cytochrome b gene across Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney: Rattus rattus (Linnaeus 1758) (Lineage I); Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout 1769); and Rattus tanezumi (Temminck 1844) (Lineage II). Three nsSNPs were …

Identification Of Salt Tolerance And Stress Response In Us Department Of Agriculture Tomato Germplasm At The Seedling Stage, Ibtisam Alatawi, Haizheng Xiong, Kenani Chiwina, Hanan Alkabkabi, Qun Luo, Neelendra K. Joshi, Xiaolun Sun, Xuan Zhuang, Kai-Shi Ling, Ainong Shi

Horticulture Faculty Publications and Presentations

Soil salinity is a significant abiotic factor that impedes sustainable crop production in key agricultural regions worldwide. Saline cultivation adversely affects soil quality, whereas the use of saline water for irrigation disrupts the physiological and biochemical processes of plants. Continuous irrigation with high salt concentrations leads to a gradual buildup of soil salinity, thus hindering optimal plant growth and development. Consequently, there is a growing emphasis on breeding salinity-tolerant cultivars of various crops. In this study, 71 tomato accessions sourced from 20 countries and provided by the US Department of Agriculture were evaluated under controlled greenhouse conditions and subjected to …

Reversible Degradation Of Peptidoglycan By Lytic Transglycosylases, Aaron Devereaux

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Antimicrobial resistance continues to be a burden on the global healthcare system with an estimated cost of billions of dollars and millions of deaths each year. Recently, there has been little to no development on new antibiotics to treat bacterial infection, and any that are developed become resisted to within a few years. Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria contain a mesh-like layer called peptidoglycan (PG) that surrounds their cells providing strength, cell shape, and protection from their environments. This layer is a polymer of N-acetylmuramic acid (MurNAc) and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) connected via a b-1,4-glycosidic bond, with each strand being cross-linked …

Npr1 As A Temperature-Sensitive Regulator Of Pipecolic Acid-Mediated Plant Systemic Immunity, Spencer Tout

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Healthy plant development requires balancing both abiotic (e.g. climate) and biotic (e.g. pathogen) challenges, which intercept important signaling pathways in plants. For example, climate change-associated elevated temperature can negatively modulate various aspects of plant immunity, including the production of central immune signals salicylic acid (SA) and N-hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP). Since SA and NHP signaling both require the master immune co-activator protein NON-EXPRESSOR OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 1 (NPR1), it is important to investigate NPR1 as a potentially temperature-regulated molecular hub. Although the NPR1 gene is not transcriptionally downregulated at elevated temperatures (28° C vs. 23° C), little is known about …

Quantifying Ecological Processes Predicting Barren-Ground Caribou (Ɂetthën; Rangifer Tarandus Groenlandicus) Occurrence Across A Heterogenous Northern Indigenous Protected And Conserved Area., Eric Jolin

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Northern ecosystems are experiencing a period of rapid and unprecedented change, with implications for species distributions, mammal community dynamics, and habitat associations. Understanding the ecological processes that shape species distributions is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies that can adapt to such change. This study examines drivers of barren-ground caribou occurrence, a species of cultural and ecological significance, across Thaıdene Nëné Indigenous Protected Area, an ecologically intact landscape of high habitat heterogeneity straddling the treeline of the Northwest Territories. I use spatial and temporal variation in caribou detections generated by camera traps to test the relative importance of apparent competition, …

Influence Of Temperature On Tfm Tolerance In Lake Sturgeon, Emily Bouffard

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

The lampricide, 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM), has been used to successfully control invasive sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) in the Laurentian Great Lakes for over 50 years. TFM’s effectiveness is due to the relatively low capacity of sea lamprey to detoxify TFM. Water temperature has been shown to increase TFM tolerance in larval sea lamprey. However, the effects of temperature on TFM sensitivity in non-target species such as the endangered lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) are poorly understood, particularly during their early life stages. To determine how temperature affected TFM sensitivity, age 1-year-plus (1+) lake sturgeon acclimated to 8, 16, …

Timing Of Migration And Seasonal Movements Of Arctic Grayling (Thymallus Arcticus) In Relation To Water Temperature In The Kakisa River And Upper Mackenzie River, Nwt: Results From An Acoustic Telemetry Study., Levi Snook

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) are a cold-water salmonid that inhabit waterbodies throughout the circumpolar regions of the northern hemisphere. In the last decade, Ka'a'gee Tu First Nation members as well as local sport fishers, have observed lower catches of Arctic grayling during their annual spawning run in the Kakisa River, NWT. Many potential causes of this decline have been hypothesized including climate change and over harvesting. Outside of the general annual spawning activity in the headwaters of the Kakisa River, the ecology of the population, including post-spawn habitat use and migratory patterns, remained understudied. To address these knowledge gaps, acoustic …

Bio-Inspired Airfoil Design Based On The Aerodynamic Analysis Of A Bird Feather Microstructure, Jack C. Ihm

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

This study investigates the aerodynamic effects of a bio-inspired airfoil design based on the microstructure of a secondary feather from a female wood duck. The research hypothesized that incorporating barbs and barbules into an airfoil design would modify boundary layer behavior by introducing localized flow disturbances. To test this, a bio-inspired airfoil was developed by integrating the microstructure into a NACA 0012 airfoil and analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations at angles of attack of 0°, 5°, 10°, and 15°. The results showed that the bio-inspired airfoil influenced boundary layer behavior, producing localized flow disturbances near x/c = 0.7 …

Dna Methylation Variation In Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus Adamanteus) On A Georgia Barrier Island, Megan Hoog

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

The Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus, EDB) is the largest rattlesnake in the world and is thought to be declining in many portions of its range. Genetic venom studies in the Southeast United States have shown evidence of fine-scale differences within two main geographic groups on Jekyll Island. My objective is to expand on this finding to determine if epigenetic mechanisms, specifically DNA methylation, varies among different populations of EDB in similar environments, age classes, and sexes. I collected EDB blood samples through a partnership with the Jekyll Island Authority and screened 44 individuals for epigenetic variation from …

Survey And Identification Of Entomopathogenic Fungi In Millipede Species In Coastal Georgia, Kristin L. Campbell Bailey

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Entomopathogenic fungi are well-known, species-specific pathogens of a wide diversity of insects that infect, manipulate, and kill their insect hosts to complete their life cycle. Recently in Savannah, Georgia, millipedes belonging to the genus Eurymerodesmus were observed exhibiting pre-death climbing behaviors associated with pathogenic fungal infection. Dying millipedes summited vegetation and subsequently died in elevated positions along edge habitat transitioning a recreational field and forest. Upon inspection, fungal structures found emerging from dead millipedes anatomically resembled Arthrophaga myriapodina, which is the first documented entomophthoralean fungus to infect millipedes. The goal of this research was to obtain species-level identification of the …

Using Algal Turf Scrubber Biomass As A Feed Source For Juvenile Eastern Oysters, Taofeek Saka Jimoh

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Algal turf scrubber (ATS) is an engineered system that promotes natural wastewater treatment processes and improves water quality by passing a shallow stream of nutrient rich water over the surface of a gently sloped flow-way. Algae turf scrubber biomass is a combination of micro and macroalgae, as well as micro-invertebrates, ciliates, bacteria, and more. The overall aim of the study was to reduce the feeding cost of juvenile eastern oysters by replacing the commercial microalgae diet with ATS biomass. The experiment was designed to assess the viability of replacing commercial microalgal diet with ATS biomass at different substitution levels (0, …

Community And Decomposition Dynamics Along A Saltwater Intrusion Gradient On Sapelo Island, Georgia, Zach Gordon

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Saltwater intrusion, the movement of ocean water into freshwater, is a significant global threat to coastal freshwater ecosystems linked to both climate change and anthropogenic influences. Alterations to coastal landscapes can increase intrusion. Sapelo Island has an extensive history of agricultural landscape alteration, but freshwater flow decline increased the movement of saltwater inland by tides. Intrusion is expected to increase in frequency and magnitude due to rising sea levels and storms. Salinization puts inland habitats and the humans relying on them at risk. As saltwater is denser than freshwater, more pressure is placed on benthic organisms (i.e., macroinvertebrates) that will …

Microbial Community Stabilization By Restored Oyster Reefs: Implications For Blue Carbon Storage, Natalie Boydstun

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Coastal ecosystems provide critical carbon sequestration services, yet the microbial mechanisms underlying carbon storage remain poorly understood, particularly in non-vegetated habitats. This study investigated whether restored oyster reefs (Crassostrea virginica) enhance sediment carbon storage potential by stabilizing microbial communities and promoting efficient organic matter processing. I hypothesized that reef-mediated sediment stabilization and organic deposition would create conditions favoring microbial degradation of complex carbon compounds into stable soil organic matter, ultimately supporting anaerobic carbon storage. To test this, I compared sediment biogeochemistry, enzyme activity, and microbial community structure between three restored oyster reef sites and two unstructured control sites …

Investigating The Role And Expression Of Aquaporin 10 Paralogs In Spiny Dogfish (Squalus Acanthias), Esosa Omoregie

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Aquaporins (AQPs) are integral membrane proteins that facilitate the selective transport of water and small solutes across cell membranes, playing essential roles in maintaining osmotic balance in vertebrates. Among them, aquaglyceroporins such as AQP10 are capable of transporting water, glycerol, and urea, contributing to osmoregulatory and metabolic processes. This study investigated the expression, localization, and potential physiological roles of two AQP10 paralogs, AQP10C1 and AQP10C2, in the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), a marine elasmobranch that maintains osmotic equilibrium through urea retention and ion regulation. Using RT-PCR, quantitative PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry the study identified tissue-specific expression patterns of …

Effects Of Increased Temperatures And Migratory Status On Passerine Chick Rearing Phenology And Caterpillar Prey Synchrony, Marissa Calvert

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Many species across the globe have been observed to shift the seasonal timing of life history events in response to climate change-induced shifts in their local environments. However, individual species vary greatly in the direction and magnitude of these phenological shifts. Variation in phenological responsiveness to climate change among interacting species can lead to phenological asynchrony, with potential consequences for survival and population health. In years with increased spring temperatures, the timing of passerine chick rearing and of caterpillar activity may shift earlier or later in the year. Differences in the magnitude and/or direction of phenological shifts among passerines and …

Disposal Of Nanoplastics By The Brain: Plastic Persistence And Upregulation Of A Putative Plastic-Degrading Enzyme After Exposure To Polystyrene-Infused Food, Callie C. Mauersberg

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Plastic is a ubiquitous material used in many domestic and commercial applications. Widespread use of plastic has led to environmental accumulation of plastic waste, and microplastics have inundated human food and water sources. Once consumed, it is well established that microplastics translocate from the gut to other tissues, including the brain, via the circulatory system. However, it is unknown if nanoplastics persist permanently in the brain. Additionally, it is not known if microplastics can be enzymatically degraded by phagocytic cells in the CNS, such as microglia and astrocytes. Alkane monooxygenase-homolog 7 (Alkbh7) is a mitochondrial enzyme that may …

Epithelial Responses And Remodeling In The Submandibular Gland Post-Irradiation, Victoria Gellatly

Electronic Theses & Dissertations (2024 - present)

Radiation therapy for head and neck cancer often causes irreversible salivary gland dysfunction, resulting in chronic xerostomia. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this dysfunction is essential for developing regenerative therapies. Given the cellular complexity of the salivary gland single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) provides a powerful approach to investigate cell-type-specific injury responses to ionizing radiation (IR) and uncover transcriptional changes that may be masked in bulk analyses. This study investigates the cellular and molecular responses of the murine submandibular gland (SMG) to irradiation, with a focus on epithelial loss and remodeling, and regenerative failure. In order to effectively use …

Testing The Life-History Dependence Of Dietary Restriction Effects On Oxidative Molecular Damage In Hornworms, Fahime Taheri

Masters Theses

DR and ambient temperature are two environmental factors widely implicated in shaping organismal maintenance and longevity through effects on metabolic rate and oxidative damage. This study tests whether DR and reduced body temperature independently or interactively reduce oxidative protein damage in the gut of tobacco hornworm larvae, a short-lived ectotherm whose life history may constrain typical DR responses. Larvae hatched from eggs were allocated to two feeding regimes (AL and DR) and to 20 °C and 30 °C. At a defined endpoint, guts dissected and homogenized, and analyzed for protein carbonyl content and total protein. Protein damage was expressed as …

Diversity, Genomics And Antimicrobial Resistance Of Coagulase-Negative Staphylococcus: A Literature Review, Kathleen Okeefe

Electronic Theses & Dissertations (2024 - present)

Members of the gram-positive bacterial genus Staphylococcus have historically been classified into coagulase-positive Staphylococcus (CoPS) and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS). This classification is based on the ability of clotting of plasma by the coagulase enzyme, which converts fibrinogen to fibrin. CoNS species are ubiquitous commensals that frequently colonize the skin and mucosal surfaces. They are also opportunistic pathogens implicated in many human and animal infections. The evolutionary history of CoNS has generally been overlooked because of the historical lack of recognition for their clinical importance and poor taxonomic sampling. They are often perceived as being less or non-pathogenic, especially compared to …

Resources To Study The Isoforms Of The P53 Family Of Transcription Factors, Dana L. Woodstock

Electronic Theses & Dissertations (2024 - present)

The p53 family of transcription factors regulates diverse gene regulatory networks such as those involved in DNA damage repair, epidermal commitment, and neuronal development. As a result, dysfunction in these pathways lead to numerous human health conditions, including multiple types of cancer and craniofacial developmental disorders. Each family member regulates a distinct gene network leading to varied cellular and organismal phenotypes, but all are capable of regulating programmed cell death, likely due to considerable similarity between protein structure and binding sites in DNA. Analysis of these shared and distinct functions is complicated by each p53 family member gene (TP53, TP63, …

System And Method For Simulating A Respiratory System, Yang Wang, Weixing Hao, Yue-Wern Huang

Patents

A system and method for simulating a human respiratory system to facilitate investigating the functioning of the respiratory system, such as the generation and effects of secondhand smoke. An aerosol generator, which may include an atomizer, is configured to generate an aerosol. A series of filter media includes, in order, an inhaling extrathoracic filter media, an inhaling tracheobronchial filter media, an alveolar filter media, an exhaling tracheobronchial filter media, and an exhaling extrathoracic filter media. Each filter media includes one or more layers of a material having a fiber diameter and a weight that simulate the corresponding region of the …