Biology Commons^™

De Novo Assembly Of The Common Marmoset Transcriptome From Nextgen Mrna Sequences, Mnirnal D. Maudhoo, Dongren Ren, Julien S. Gradnigo, Robert M. Gibbs, Austin C. Lubker, Etsuko N. Moriyama, Jeffrey A. French, Robert B. Norgen Jr.

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Nonhuman primates are important for both biomedical studies and understanding human evolution. Although research in these areas has mostly focused on Old World primates, such as the rhesus macaque, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a New World primate, offers important advantages in comparison to other primates, such as an accelerated lifespan. To conduct Next Generation expression studies or to study primate evolution, a high quality annotation of the marmoset genome is required. The availability of marmoset transcriptome data from five tissues, including both raw sequences and assembled transcripts, will aid in the annotation of the newly released …

Trait-Based Diversification Shifts Reflect Differential Extinction Among Fossil Taxa, Peter J. Wagner, George F. Estabrook

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Evolution provides many cases of apparent shifts in diversification associated with particular anatomical traits. Three general models connect these patterns to anatomical evolution: (i) elevated net extinction of taxa bearing particular traits, (ii) elevated net speciation of taxa bearing particular traits, and (iii) elevated evolvability expanding the range of anatomies available to some species. Traitbased diversification shifts predict elevated hierarchical stratigraphic compatibility (i.e., primitive→derived→highly derived sequences) among pairs of anatomical characters. The three specific models further predict (i) early loss of diversity for taxa retaining primitive conditions (elevated net extinction), (ii) increased diversification among …

Solenopsis Invicta Virus (Sinv-1) Infection And Insecticide Interactions In The Red Imported Fire Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Danielle M. Tufts, Wayne B. Hunter, Blake Bextine

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Controlling invasive species is a growing concern; however, pesticides can be detrimental for non-target organisms. The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren; Hymenoptera: Formicidae) has aggressively invaded ~138 million ha in the USA and causes over $6 billion in damage and control efforts annually (Valles 2011). Myriad research studies have been conducted to discover safe biological control agents to manage these invasive pests (Valles et al. 2004; Milks et al. 2008; Oi et al. 2009; Yang et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2010; Callcott et al. 2011; Porter et al. 2011; Tufts et al. 2011). Viruses may be lethal …

The Quarterly Review Of Biology: Population And Community Ecology Of Onto- Genetic Development. Monographs In Population Biology, Volume 51., Chad Brassil

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The authors present a derivation, synthesis, and exposition of the consequences of juvenile-adult stage-structured models leading to biomass overcompensation with increasing mortality rates. They compile and elaborate upon their previous work, using the space afforded to provide a thorough explanation and examination of model variants.

They argue the most important stage-structure element to include is, minimally, a model with juveniles and adults. Fundamentally, these elements are linked by maturation of juveniles to adults and the reproduction of adults to produce more juveniles. The major result is that, for the empirically justified set of parameters presented in the book, increasing the …

Temperature Alters Food Web Body-Size Structure, Jean P. Gibert, John P. Delong

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The increased temperature associated with climate change may have important effects on body size and predator– prey interactions. The consequences of these effects for food web structure are unclear because the relationships between temperature and aspects of food web structure such as predator–prey body-size relationships are unknown. Here, we use the largest reported dataset for marine predator–prey interactions to assess how temperature affects predator–prey body-size relationships among different habitats ranging from the tropics to the poles. We found that prey size selection depends on predator body size, temperature and the interaction between the two. Our results indicate that (i) predator–prey …

Response Of Beta Diversity To Pulses Of Ordovician-Silurian Mass Extinction, Simon A.F. Darroch, Peter J. Wagner

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Ecologists are increasingly using the fossil record of mass extinction to build predictive models for the ongoing biodiversity crisis. During mass extinctions, major depletions in global (i.e., gamma) diversity may reflect decrease in alpha diversity (i.e., local assemblages support fewer taxa), and/or decrease in beta diversity (such that similar pools of taxa are common to a greater number of local areas). Contrasting the effects of extinction on alpha and beta diversity is therefore central to understanding how global richness becomes depleted over these critical events. Here we investigate the spatial effects of mass extinction by examining changes in alpha, beta, …

Across-Year Social Stability Shapes Network Structure In Wintering Migrant Sparrows, Daizaburo Shizuka, Alexis S. Chaine, Jennifer Anderson, Oscar Johnson, Inger Marie Laursen, Bruce E. Lyon

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Migratory birds often form flocks on their wintering grounds, but important details of social structure such as the patterns of association between individuals are virtually unknown. We analysed networks of co-membership in short-term flocks for wintering golden-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia atricapilla) across three years and discovered social complexity unsuspected for migratory songbirds. The population was consistently clustered into distinct social communities within a relatively small area (~ 7 ha). Birds returned to the same community across years, with mortality and recruitment leading to some degree of turnover in membership. These spatiotemporal patterns were explained by the combination of space …

Mammals Of Kenya’S Protected Areas From 1888 To 2013, Aniko B. Toth, S. Kathleen Lyon, Anna K. Behrensmeyer

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Kenya is a world leader in conservation and host to one of the most diverse array of mammals on the planet. As a focus of scientific attention, it is important to be able to assess not only the current state of Kenya’s mammal communities, but also how they have changed over anthropogenic timescales. Comprehensive lists of mammal species from known areas are essential for this goal, and these also provide comparative baselines for assessing changes in mammalian diversity in the future and in the fossil record. Though there is considerable literature available for mammals inhabiting Kenyan protected areas (National Parks …

A Century Of Change In Kenya’S Mammal Communities: Increased Richness And Decreased Uniqueness In Six Protected Areas, Aniko B. Toth, S. Kathleen Lyons, Anna K. Behrensmeyer

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The potential for large-scale biodiversity losses as a result of climate change and human impact presents major challenges for ecology and conservation science. Governments around the world have established national parks and wildlife reserves to help protect biodiversity, but there are few studies on the long-term consequences of this strategy. We use Kenya as a case study to investigate species richness and other attributes of mammal communities in 6 protected areas over the past century. Museum records from African expeditions that comprehensively sampled mammals from these same areas in the early 1900’s provide a baseline for evaluating changes in species …

Variable Facial Plumage In Juvenile Cliff Swallows: A Potential Offspring Recognition Cue?, Allison E. Johnson, Steven Freedberg

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Although the ability to recognize related offspring is essential in the evolution of social behavior, the cues that birds use to identify their own offspring are not fully understood. The Cliff Swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) is a highly social species that nests in large colonies and exhibits a high incidence of both conspecific brood parasitism and extrapair fertilization, behaviors that can potentially lead to parents investing energy and resources in unrelated offspring, which reduces the parents’ genetic fitness. Because parents continue to feed offspring after they leave the nest, parents also risk investing in unrelated offspring by misidentifying their …

Conflicting Selection In The Course Of Adaptive Diversification: The Interplay Between Mutualism And Intraspecific Competition, Rafael L.G. Raimundo, Jean P. Gibert, David H. Hembry, Paulo R. Guimaraes Jr.

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Adaptive speciation can occur when a population undergoes assortative mating and disruptive selection caused by frequency-dependent intraspecific competition. However, other interactions, such as mutualisms based on trait matching, may generate conflicting selective pressures that constrain species diversification. We used individual-based simulations to explore how different types of mutualism affect adaptive diversification. A magic trait was assumed to simultaneously mediate mate choice, intraspecific competition, and mutualisms. In scenarios of intimate, specialized mu- tualisms, individuals interact with one or few individual mutualistic partners, and diversification is constrained only if the mutualism is obligate. In other scenarios, increasing numbers of different partners per …

Individual Phenotypic Variation Reduces Interaction Strengths In A Consumer–Resource System, Jean P. Gibert, Chad Brassil

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Natural populations often show variation in traits that can affect the strength of interspecific interactions. Interaction strengths in turn influence the fate of pairwise interacting populations and the stability of food webs. Understanding the mechanisms relating individual phenotypic variation to interaction strengths is thus central to assess how trait variation affects population and community dynamics. We incorporated nonheritable variation in attack rates and handling times into a classical consumer–resource model to investigate how variation may alter interaction strengths, population dynamics, species persistence, and invasiveness. We found that individual variation influences species persistence through its effect on interaction strengths. In many …

Comparison Of The Wing Polyphenic Response Of Pea Aphids (Acyrthosiphon Pisum) To Crowding And Predator Cues, Swapna R. Purandare, Brigitte Tenhumberg, Jennifer A. Brisson

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

1. Pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris; Hemiptera: Aphididae) exhibit transgenerational wing polyphenism, in which unwinged females produce genetically identical winged offspring in response to environmental cues such as overcrowding and predation risk that indicate poor habitat quality.

2. Laboratory experiments were carried out to explore the intensity of the wing polyphenic response of pea aphids exposed to cues from ladybird predators and crowding, and their response was compared to pea aphids that were not exposed to any cues (control).

3. The study used cues from two different ladybird species: Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Hippodamia convergens Guérin-Méneville (Coleoptera: …

Immunity Of The Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Ssy5 Mrna To Nonsense-Mediated Mrna Decay, Jesseeca Obenoskey, Dakota R. Lane, Audrey L. Atkin, Bessie W. Kebaara

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway is a specialized pathway that triggers the rapid degradation of select mRNAs. Initially, identified as a pathway that degrades mRNAs with premature termination codons, NMD is now recognized as a pathway that also regulates some natural mRNAs. Since natural mRNAs do not typically contain premature termination codons, these mRNAs contain features that target them to NMD. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae mRNAs with a typically long 3’UTRs are usually degraded by NMD, however in some conditions a constitutively expressed SSY5 mRNA with multiple NMD targeting signals including an atypically long 3’-UTR is an exception. We investigated …

Role Of An Archaeal Pita Transporter In The Copper And Arsenic Resistance Of Metallosphaera Sedula, An Extreme Thermoacidophile, Samuel Mccarthy, Chenbing Al, Garrett Wheaton, Rahul Tevatla, Valerie Eckrich, Robert Kelly, Paul H. Blum

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Thermoacidophilic archaea, such as Metallosphaera sedula, are lithoautotrophs that occupy metal-rich environments. In previous studies, an M. sedula mutant lacking the primary copper efflux transporter, CopA, became copper sensitive. In contrast, the basis for supranormal copper resistance remained unclear in the spontaneous M. sedula mutant, CuR1. Here, transcriptomic

analysis of copper-shocked cultures indicated that CuR1 had a unique regulatory response to metal challenge corresponding to the upregulation of 55 genes. Genome resequencing identified 17 confirmed mutations unique to CuR1 that were likely to change gene function. Of these, 12 mapped to genes with annotated function associated with transcription, metabolism, …

Identification And Codon Reading Properties Of 5-Cyanomethyl Uridine, A New Modified Nucleoside Found In The Anticodon Wobble Position Of Mutant Haloarchaeal Isoleucine Trnas, Debabrata Mandal, Caroline Köhrer, Dan Su, Ramesh Babu, Clement T.Y. Chan, Yuchen Liu, Dieter Söll, Paul H. Blum, Masayasu Kuwahara, Peter C. Dedon, Uttam L. Rajbhandary

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Most archaea and bacteria use a modified C in the anticodon wobble position of isoleucine tRNA to base pair with A but not with G of the mRNA. This allows the tRNA to read the isoleucine codon AUA without also reading the methionine codon AUG. To understand why a modified C, and not U or modified U, is used to base pair with A, we mutated the C34 in the anticodon of Haloarcula marismortui isoleucine tRNA (tRNA₂^Ile) to U, expressed the mutant tRNA in Haloferax volcanii, and purified and analyzed the tRNA. Ribosome binding experiments show that …

Different Gene-Specific Mechanisms Determine The ‘Revised-Response’ Memory Transcription Patterns Of A Subset Of A. Thaliana Dehydration Stress Responding Genes, Ning Liu, Yong Ding, Michael Fromm, Zoya Avramova

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Plants that have experienced several exposures to

dehydration stress show increased resistance to future

exposures by producing faster and/or stronger

reactions, while many dehydration stress responding

genes in Arabidopsis thaliana super-induce their

transcription as a ‘memory’ from the previous encounter.

A previously unknown, rather unusual,

memory response pattern is displayed by a subset

of the dehydration stress response genes. Despite

robustly responding to a first stress, these genes

return to their initial, pre-stressed, transcript levels

during the watered recovery; surprisingly, they do

not respond further to subsequent stresses of similar

magnitude and duration. This transcriptional behavior

defines the …

H3k27me3 And H3k4me3 Chromatin Environment At Super-Induced Dehydration Stress Memory Genes Of Arabidopsis Thaliana, Ning Liu, Zoya Avramova, Michael Fromm

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Pre-exposure to a stress may alter the plant’s cellular, biochemical, and/or transcriptional responses during future encounters as a “memory” from the previous stress. Genes increasing transcription in response to a first dehydration stress, but producing much higher transcript levels in a subsequent stress, represent the super-induced “transcription memory” genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. The chromatin environment (histone H3 tri-methylations of Lys 4 and Lys 27, H3K4me3, and H3K27me3) studied at five dehydration stress memory genes revealed existence of distinct memory-response subclasses that responded differently to CLF deficiency and displayed different transcriptional activities during the watered recovery periods. Among the most …

Quorum Sensing Activity And Control Of Yeast-Mycelium Dimorphism In Ophiostoma Floccosum, Alexander Berrocal, Claudia Oviedo, Kenneth W. Nickerson, José Navarrete

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Quorum sensing (QS) activity in Ophiostoma fungi has not been described. We have examined the growth conditions on the control of dimorphism in Ophiostoma floccosum, an attractive biocontrol agent against blue-stain fungi, and its relationship with QS activity. In a defined culture medium with l-proline as the N source, a high inoculum size (10⁷ c.f.u. ml^-1) was the principal factor that promoted yeast-like growth. Inoculum size effect can be explained by the secretion of a QS molecule(s) (QSMs) responsible for inducing yeast morphology. QSM candidates were extracted from spent medium and their structure was determined by GC–MS. …

The Importance Of Rare Species: A Trait-Based Assessment Of Rare Species Contributions To Functional Diversity And Possible Ecosystem Function In Tall-Grass Prairies, Meha Jain, Dan F.B. Flynn, Case M. Prager, Georgia M. Hart, Caroline M. Devan, Farshid S. Ahrestani, Matthew I. Palmer, Daniel E. Bunker, Johannes M. H. Knops, Claire F. Jouseau, Shahid Naeem

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The majority of species in ecosystems are rare, but the ecosystem consequences of losing rare species are poorly known. To understand how rare species may influence ecosystem functioning, this study quantifies the contribution of species based on their relative level of rarity to community functional diversity using a trait-based approach. Given that rarity can be defined in several different ways, we use four different definitions of rarity: abundance (mean and maximum), geographic range, and habitat specificity. We find that rarer species contribute to functional diversity when rarity is defined by maximum abundance, geographic range, and habitat specificity. However, rarer species …

Demographic Variation And Habitat Specialization Of Tree Species In A Diverse Tropical Forest Of Cameroon, David Kenfack, George B. Chuyong, Richard Condit, Sabrina E. Russo, Duncan W. Thomas

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Many tree species in tropical forests have distributions tracking local ridge-slope-valley topography. Previous work in a 50-ha plot in Korup National Park, Cameroon, demonstrated that 272 species, or 63% of those tested, were significantly associated with topography.

Methods: We used two censuses of 329,000 trees ≥1 cm dbh to examine demographic variation at this site that would account for those observed habitat preferences. We tested two predictions. First, within a given topographic habitat, species specializing on that habitat (‘residents’) should outperform species that are specialists of other habitats (‘foreigners’). Second, across different topographic habitats, species should perform best …

Bridging Physics And Biology Teaching Through Modeling, Anne-Marie Hoskinson, Brian A. Couch, Benjamin M. Zwickl, Kathleen A. Hinko, Marcos D. Caballero

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

As the frontiers of biology become increasingly interdisciplinary, the physics education community has engaged in ongoing efforts to make physics classes more relevant to life science majors. These efforts are complicated by the many apparent differences between these fields, including the types of systems that each studies, the behavior of those systems, the kinds of measurements that each makes, and the role of mathematics in each field. Nonetheless, physics and biology are both sciences that rely on observations and measurements to construct models of the natural world. In this article, we propose that efforts to bridge the teaching of these …

Effect Of Prey Richness On A Consumer’S Intrinsic Growth Rate, Brian J. Darby, Michael A. Herman

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The intrinsic growth rate of nonselective microbivores increases asymptotically with increasing prey biomass, but we do not know how intrinsic growth rate is affected by prey richness. The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of prey richness on the growth kinetics of nematode predators while grazing on mixed bacterial lawns. We found that the intrinsic growth rate of Caenorhabditis elegans in laboratory culture increased asymptotically with prey richness. The mechanism of this pattern was primarily due to the best available prey species in the mixture: the intrinsic growth rate of the consumer feeding on a mixture of …

Eutrophication Weakens Stabilizing Effects Of Diversity In Natural Grasslands, Yann Hautier, Eric W. Seabloom, Elizabeth T. Borer, Peter B. Adler, W. Stanley Harpole, Helmut Hillebrand, Eric M. Lind, Andrew S. Macdougall, Carly J. Stevens, Jonathan D. Bakker, Yvonne M. Buckley, Chengjin Chu, Scott L. Collins, Pedro Daleo, Ellen I. Damschen, Kendi F. Davies, Philip A. Fay, Jennifer Firn, Daniel S. Gruner, Virginia L. Jin, Julia A. Klein, Johannes M. H. Knops, Kimberly J. La Pierre, Wei Li, Rebecca L. Mcculley, Brett A. Melbourne, Joslin L. Moore, Lydia R. O’Halloran, Suzanne M. Prober, Anita C. Risch, Mahesh Sankaran, Martin Schuetz, Andy Hector

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Studies of experimental grassland communities^1–7 have demonstrated that plant diversity can stabilize productivity through species asynchrony, in which decreases in the biomass of some species are compensated for by increases in others^1,2. However, it remains unknown whether these findings are relevant to natural ecosystems, especially those for which species diversity is threatened by anthropogenic global change^8–11. Here we analyse diversity–stability relationships from 41 grasslands on five continents and examine how these relationships are affected by chronic fertilization, one of the strongest drivers of species loss globally⁸. Unmanipulated communities with more species had greater …

Dehydration Stress Memory Genes Of Zea Mays; Comparison With Arabidopsis Thaliana, Yong Ding, Laetitia Virlouvet, Ning Liu, Jean-Jack Riethoven, Michael E. Fromm, Zoya Avramova

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Pre-exposing plants to diverse abiotic stresses may alter their physiological and transcriptional responses to a subsequent stress, suggesting a form of “stress memory”. Arabidopsis thaliana plants that have experienced multiple exposures to dehydration stress display transcriptional behavior suggesting “memory” from an earlier stress. Genes that respond to a first stress by up-regulating or down-regulating their transcription but in a subsequent stress provide a significantly different response define the ‘memory genes’ category. Genes responding similarly to each stress form the ‘non-memory’ category. It is unknown whether such memory responses exists in other Angiosperm lineages and whether memory is an evolutionarily …

Using An Ecosystem Approach To Complement Protection Schemes Based On Organism-Level Endpoints, Clare Bradshaw, Lawrence Kapustka, Lawrence Barenthouse, Justin Brown, Philippe Ciffroy, Valery E. Forbes, Stanislav Geras'kin, Ulrik Kautsky, Francois Brechignac

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Radiation protection goals for ecological resources are focused on ecological structures and functions at population-, community-, and ecosystem-levels. The current approach to radiation safety for non-human biota relies on organism-level endpoints, and as such is not aligned with the stated overarching protection goals of international agencies. Exposure to stressors can trigger non-linear changes in ecosystem structure and function that cannot be predicted from effects on individual organisms. From the ecological sciences, we know that important interactive dynamics related to such emergent properties determine the flows of goods and services in ecological systems that human societies rely upon. A previous Task …

Effect Of The Internet Commerce On Dispersal Modes Of Invasive Alien Species, Magdalena Lenda, Piotr Skorka, Johannes M.H. Knops, Dawid Moron, William J. Sutherland, Karolina Kuszewska, Michal Woyciechowski

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

The spread of invasive alien plants has considerable environmental and economic consequences, and is one of the most challenging ecological problems. The spread of invasive alien plant species depends largely on long-distance dispersal, which is typically linked with human activity. The increasing domination of the internet will have impacts upon almost all components of our lives, including potential consequences for the spread of invasive species. To determine whether the rise of Internet commerce has any consequences for the spread of invasive alien plant species, we studied the sale of thirteen of some of the most harmful Europe invasive alien plant …

Loss Of Sirt1 Function Improves Intestinal Anti-Bacterial Defense And Protects From Colitis-Induced Colorectal Cancer, Giuseppe Lo Sasso, Dongryeol Ryu, Laurent Mouchiroud, Samodha C. Fernando, Christopher L. Anderson, Elena Katsyuba, Alessandra Piersigilli, Michael O. Hottiger, Kristina Schoonjans, Johan Auwerx

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Dysfunction of Paneth and goblet cells in the intestine contributes to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colitisassociated colorectal cancer (CAC). Here, we report a role for the NAD⁺-dependent histone deacetylase SIRT1 in the control of anti-bacterial defense. Mice with an intestinal specific Sirt1 deficiency (Sirt1^int-/-) have more Paneth and goblet cells with a consequent rearrangement of the gut microbiota. From a mechanistic point of view, the effects on mouse intestinal cell maturation are mediated by SIRT1-dependent changes in the acetylation status of SPDEF, a master regulator of Paneth and goblet cells. Our results suggest that targeting …

Effects Of Nitrogen And Phosphorus Fertilization On Soil Carbon Fractions In Alpine Meadows On The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Jin Hua Li, Yu Jie Yang, Bo Wen Li, Wen Jin Li, Gang Wang, Johannes M. H. Knops

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

In grassland ecosystems, N and P fertilization often increase plant productivity, but there is no concensus if fertilization affects soil C fractions. We tested effects of N, P and N+P fertilization at 5, 10, 15 g m^-2 yr^-1 (N₅, N₁₀, N₁₅, P₅, P₁₀, P₁₅, N₅P₅, N₁₀P₁₀, and N₁₅P₁₅) compared to unfertilized control on soil C, soil microbial biomass and functional diversity at the 0– 20 cm and 20–40 cm depth in an alpine meadow …

De Novo Transcriptome Assembly From Fat Body And Flight Muscles Transcripts To Identify Morph-Specific Gene Expression Profiles In Gryllus Firmus, Neetha Nanoth Vellichirammal, Anthony J. Zera, Rudolf J. Schilder, Cody Wehrkamp, Jean-Jack M. Riethoven, Jennifer A. Brisson

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Wing polymorphism is a powerful model for examining many aspects of adaptation. The wing dimorphic cricket species, Gryllus firmus, consists of a long-winged morph with functional flight muscles that is capable of flight, and two flightless morphs. One (obligately) flightless morph emerges as an adult with vestigial wings and vestigial flight muscles. The other (plastic) flightless morph emerges with fully-developed wings but later in adulthood histolyzes its flight muscles. Importantly both flightless morphs have substantially increased reproductive output relative to the flight-capable morph. Much is known about the physiological and biochemical differences between the morphs with respect to adaptations …