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1991

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Articles 391 - 420 of 505

Full-Text Articles in Civil and Environmental Engineering

Dynamic Properties Of Fine-Grained Coal Refuse, C. Robert Ullrich, Barry K. Thacker, Nancy R. Roberts Mar 1991

Dynamic Properties Of Fine-Grained Coal Refuse, C. Robert Ullrich, Barry K. Thacker, Nancy R. Roberts

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

A simplified method of slope stability analysis is presented for upstream-constructed coal tailings dams subjected to earthquake shaking. The method employs a conventional method of slices approach, in which dynamic loads are represented as psuedostatic forces applied to each slice. Excess pore water pressures are estimated from cyclic triaxial tests performed on specimens of fine coal refuse. Cyclic triaxial test results are presented for fine coal refuse materials from six sites in the western Appalachian region. Measured excess pore water pressure values appear to be influenced by fine coal processing procedures, although material plasticity and grain characteristics are also important. …

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Dynamic Strength And Permanent Deformation Of Saturated Sand, Masayuki Hyodo, Noriyuki Yasufuku, Hidekazu Murata, Takeharu Konami Mar 1991

Dynamic Strength And Permanent Deformation Of Saturated Sand, Masayuki Hyodo, Noriyuki Yasufuku, Hidekazu Murata, Takeharu Konami

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

The undrained cyclic triaxial behavior of saturated sand has been studied using anisotropically consolidated specimens. The strength and deformation under various combinations of initial static and cyclic shear stresses were attempted to clarify. The cyclic strength was first discussed, and then, the residual shear strain was investigated related with effective stress ratio at the end of each stress cycle. Finally, an empirical model was proposed for evaluating the development of pore pressure and residual shear strain of saturated sand subjected to various initial static and subsequent cyclic shear stresses.

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Dynamic Strength Of Gravelly Soils And Its Relation To The Penetration Resistance, Y. Tanaka, K. Kudo, K. Kokusho, Y. Yoshida Mar 1991

Dynamic Strength Of Gravelly Soils And Its Relation To The Penetration Resistance, Y. Tanaka, K. Kudo, K. Kokusho, Y. Yoshida

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Undrained cyclic triaxial tests have been conducted on specimens of dense diluvial gravelly soils taken from four sites by an in-situ freeze sampling method. The test results and previous test results obtained by other researchers suggest that the dynamic strength of gravelly soils can be evaluated based on both the modified blow count of the penetration tests and on the effective confining pressure. A method for the evaluation by utilizing the large penetration test (LPT) blow counts is proposed in this paper by considering the effect of the effective confining pressure on the dynamic strength.

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Earthquake-Induced Settlement In Soft Grounds, K. Yasuhara, T. Konami, M. Hyodo, K. Hirao Mar 1991

Earthquake-Induced Settlement In Soft Grounds, K. Yasuhara, T. Konami, M. Hyodo, K. Hirao

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Earthquake-induced settlements in clay is derived from both undrained shear deformation and post-earthquake volume change. The former is assumed to be time-independent while the latter must be time-dependent. To determine the characteristics of cyclic-induced settlements, the authors have carried out a family of cyclic triaxial tests followed by drainage on the plastic marine clay. In every test, shear strain and excess pore pressure were measured during undrained stage and volume change was measured during dissipation of excess pore pressure. In the present study, in particular, the results from cyclic triaxial tests were formulated in order to predict the variations of …

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Efficient Installation Of Gravel Drains, Yoshiro Ono, Yutaka Nakajima, Katsuhiko Ito, Hiroshi Oishi Mar 1991

Efficient Installation Of Gravel Drains, Yoshiro Ono, Yutaka Nakajima, Katsuhiko Ito, Hiroshi Oishi

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

The gravel drain system aims to avert liquefaction in a sandy soil by quickly dissipating excess pore water pressure. We have developed a compaction-rod type machine which allows efficient construction of gravel drains. Main attributes of this machine are: (1) extremely fast installation of gravel drains, (2) low noise, (3) low level of vibration, (4) virtually no ground deformation during construction, and (5) densification of the surrounding soil. Large-scale model tests demonstrated that a cone-type compaction rod is most effective in densifying the surrounding soil when installing gravel drains with our machine.

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Evaluation Of Liquefaction Potential For An Earth Dam Site, Bhagwat V. K. Lavania, J. N. Sharma, S. Mukerjee Mar 1991

Evaluation Of Liquefaction Potential For An Earth Dam Site, Bhagwat V. K. Lavania, J. N. Sharma, S. Mukerjee

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

The foundation of the proposed Polavaram Earth and Rockfill Dam (India) has a sand deposit about 15 to 30 meters deep. The medium size sand is poorly to uniformly graded having relati.ve density in the range of 40-45% and angle of internal friction 30°. Standard Penetration Tests have been conducted in 22 bore holes at site and the N-counts have been observed to range between 4 to 111. The liquefaction potential of deposit under maximum credible earthquake (MCE) for the site has been evaluated by analyzing the data on the basis of prevailing empirical approaches and by the results of …

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Experiments On Soil Spring Constants During Liquefaction, Masakatsu Miyajima, Masaru Kitaura Mar 1991

Experiments On Soil Spring Constants During Liquefaction, Masakatsu Miyajima, Masaru Kitaura

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

The present paper deals with the soil spring constant on pipeline in relation to liquefaction process. The soil spring constant is one of the most influential factors in evaluation of the pipeline failure induced by soil liquefaction. Laboratory tests were conducted using a steel pipe in order to obtain the hysteresis curve of pipe-soil layer system. Based on the experimental results, the authors propose a model of the restoring force characteristics which is represented by two soil spring constants K1 and K2. Furthermore, the authors investigated K1 and K2 in relation to the effective stress …

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Fuzzy Multifactorial Evaluation On Liquefaction Of Saturated Sandy Soil, Chang Hong Mar 1991

Fuzzy Multifactorial Evaluation On Liquefaction Of Saturated Sandy Soil, Chang Hong

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In this paper, according to the principle of fuzzy mathematics, five principal factors are considered, earthquake intensity I, the thickness of overburden 1Ryer of non-liquefacted cohesive soil Ho, SPT blow count (China) N, the depth of point of SPT ds, and groundwater level dw, at the same time, the subordinate functions of them are estab1ished. The rank of liquefaction is classified into four sorts: non-liquefaction, probable-non-liquefaction, probable-liquefaction and liquefaction. The fuzzy multifactorial evaluation is presented for predicting site earthquake liquefaction of sandy soil, and the operation of M (.,+)is applied to calculation of fuzzy matrix. At last, a comparison between …

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Geotechnical Damage Due To Bihar Earthquake Of August 1988, Sudhir K. Jain, Anil K. Agrawal, Raghunath P. Tripathi Mar 1991

Geotechnical Damage Due To Bihar Earthquake Of August 1988, Sudhir K. Jain, Anil K. Agrawal, Raghunath P. Tripathi

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

The Bihar-Nepal earthquake of August 21, 1988 (magnitude 6.6) caused significant loss of life and property. Besides the epicentral area, two distant places (Munger in India and Bhaktapur in Nepal) suffered significantly. This was also the case in the 1934 earthquake (magnitude 8.4) and is due to peculiar geology of the area. Geotechnical damage in the affected area includes liquefaction, cracking and subsidence of embankments, and cracks in bridge abutments and wing walls. Besides, in the hilly regions of Sikkim, landslides and rockfalls disrupted road network significantly. Extensive damage took place in the eastern Nepal also. This paper describes the …

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Index Of Shear Wave Velocity In Diluvial Gravel Samples, Shin'ya Nishio, Katsuyuki Tamaoki Mar 1991

Index Of Shear Wave Velocity In Diluvial Gravel Samples, Shin'ya Nishio, Katsuyuki Tamaoki

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Measurements of shear wave velocities, Vs, during triaxial compression tests were conducted on undisturbed samples obtained from a diluvial gravel deposit. The reconstituted gravel samples were also tested to compare the characteristics of shear wave velocity. The results of these measurements indicated that Vs increases at the initial stage of the triaxial compression tests, and decreases gradually until the failure of specimen and that the reduction in Vs was more noticeable for the undisturbed samples than for the reconstituted samples. The results also revealed a unique relationship between Vs when evaluating the effect of stress ratio …

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Influence Of Liquefaction To Pile-Soil-Structure Interaction, Tadahiko Shiomi, Michlo Sugumoto, Yoshimasa Shigeno, Yoshio Suzuki Mar 1991

Influence Of Liquefaction To Pile-Soil-Structure Interaction, Tadahiko Shiomi, Michlo Sugumoto, Yoshimasa Shigeno, Yoshio Suzuki

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Influence of liquefaction on a pile-soil-structure interaction is studied by a dynamic effective analysis code (MuDIAN). The soil properties are modeled by a Mohr-Coulomb assumption with a dilatancy model. Liquefaction takes place in shallow depth and cause the change of dynamic behavior. The approaches evaluation method of soil constants and results are reported in details.

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Liquefaction Analysis For Rubber Dam And Review Of Case Histories Of Liquefaction Of Gravels, Julio E. Valera, Jon Y. Kaneshiro Mar 1991

Liquefaction Analysis For Rubber Dam And Review Of Case Histories Of Liquefaction Of Gravels, Julio E. Valera, Jon Y. Kaneshiro

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

A geotechnical investigation for the design and construction of an air-inflated rubber dam (for ground-water recharge) was performed, including evaluation of the liquefaction potential of the dam's foundation. The dam, about 300 feet long and 13 feet high when fully inflated is located along Alameda Creek at the upper part of the alluvial fan near Fremont, California. The sediments at the site are generally sandy gravels and gravelly sands. In order to fully investigate the liquefaction potential of the gravelly soils, the soils themselves were studied, and case histories involving similar conditions were reviewed. These case histories indicate that, in …

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Liquefaction Analysis Of Sands: Some Interpretation Of Seed's KΑ (Sloping Ground) And KΣ (Depth) Correction Factors Using Steady State Concept, V. S. Pillai Mar 1991

Liquefaction Analysis Of Sands: Some Interpretation Of Seed's KΑ (Sloping Ground) And KΣ (Depth) Correction Factors Using Steady State Concept, V. S. Pillai

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Seed's Liquefaction Assessment Chart (SLAC) correlates the corrected SPT blow count (N1)60 to the cyclic stress ratio required to cause liquefaction for free field level ground conditions. However, the cyclic stress ratio or the liquefaction resistance of a soil under sloping ground (initial static shear) and at depth (high confining pressure) would be significantly different from that derived from the SLAC. To correct the liquefaction resistance for the initial static shear and confining pressure, factors Kα and Kσ are used respectively. The factors have significant influence on the evaluation of liquefaction resistance against earthquake loading …

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Liquefaction Criterion For Sand Deposits During Earthquake, Wu Yuejin Mar 1991

Liquefaction Criterion For Sand Deposits During Earthquake, Wu Yuejin

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In this paper, the cyclic stress conditions for the liquefaction of sand samples and deposits are presented. The liquefaction criterion for sand deposits during earthquake is given. Finally the criterion is discussed from two aspects.

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Liquefaction During Two Moderate-Recent Earthquakes In India, Pramod N. Agrawal Mar 1991

Liquefaction During Two Moderate-Recent Earthquakes In India, Pramod N. Agrawal

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

The observations of liquefaction during the Cachar earthquake of N.E. India in December 31, 1984 (M=5.6) and the Great Nicobar earthquake of January 20, 1982 (M=6.3) have been reported. These observation, at short epicentral distances where duration of sustained motion was insufficient to postulate induced dynamic increase in pore water pressure, have been explained as quick-sand phenomena due to disturbance of soil structure under the influence of impulsive force associated with rupture at source. The proposed physical mechanism also explains well the bending of ceiling fan blades in Cachar earthquake and upthrow of objects during earthquakes in general. The discussion …

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Liquefaction Induced Permanent Ground Displacement In Niigata City, Masanori Hamada, Kazue Wakamatsu, Susumu Yasuda Mar 1991

Liquefaction Induced Permanent Ground Displacement In Niigata City, Masanori Hamada, Kazue Wakamatsu, Susumu Yasuda

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Permanent ground displacement resulting from the 1964 Niigata Earthquake were studied based on pre- and post-earthquake aerial surveys. In the area along the Shinano River and the Tsusen River, extensive large ground displacements up to about 10 m occurred towards the river, though the ground was almost flat. To ascertain the mechanism of such large ground displacement, several detailed soil investigations were conducted. And it was clarified that the gradient of the ground surface, the gradient of the bottom of the liquefied layer and the thickness of the liquefied layer were main factors affecting to the such large ground displacement.

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Liquefaction Potential Evaluation Based On Rayleigh Wave Investigation And Its Comparison With Field Behavior, Kohji Tokimatsu, Shuji Tamura, Shinichi Kuwayama Mar 1991

Liquefaction Potential Evaluation Based On Rayleigh Wave Investigation And Its Comparison With Field Behavior, Kohji Tokimatsu, Shuji Tamura, Shinichi Kuwayama

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

A simplified method is presented for evaluating liquefaction potential of sand deposits using shear wave velocity. Effectiveness of the proposed method is evaluated through field tests at 17 sites in Niigata city where field performance during the 1964 Niigata earthquake is known. A modified version of steady state Rayleigh wave method is used in which the amplitude ratio between vertical and horizontal ground surface motions can be measured in addition to the phase velocity. Based on the measured phase velocity vs. wavelength relationship, shear wave velocity profile is determined using an inverse analysis. The liquefaction potential of each site is …

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Liquefaction Potential Prediction By Multiple Stage Multifactorial Evaluation, Limin Zhang, Ting Hu Mar 1991

Liquefaction Potential Prediction By Multiple Stage Multifactorial Evaluation, Limin Zhang, Ting Hu

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Factors affecting liquefaction are analyzed. Qualitative factors along with liquefaction itself are conceived to be of fuzziness the common methods cannot deal with. A new method – the Multiple-Stage Multifactorial Evaluation is introduced to evaluate the liquefaction potential of sand which can take into account not only the factors considered by the common methods but also these qualitative factors which otherwise cannot be considered by the explicit mathematic evaluation methods and can treat each factor according to its importance to liquefaction. Tests with the method show a higher correct evaluation rate over other methods. Conclusion is drawn about the liquefaction …

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Session 3: Opening Remarks, G. Castro Mar 1991

Session 3: Opening Remarks, G. Castro

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

No abstract provided.

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Pore Pressure Response During 1986 Lotung Earthquakes, C. K. Shen, Zhiliang Wang, X. S. Li Mar 1991

Pore Pressure Response During 1986 Lotung Earthquakes, C. K. Shen, Zhiliang Wang, X. S. Li

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In 1986, two significant earthquake events in Lotung, Taiwan were recorded with both acceleration and pore water pressure traces at different depths below the ground surface. One event (M=6.2) was recorded on July 30th with an epcientral distance of 6km, and the other (M=7.0) was recorded on November 14th with an epicentral distance of about 80 km from the site. To analyze the recorded data, a finite element procedure was developed. The procedure incorporates a newly developed bounding surface hypoplasticity model for granular soils and can handle multidirectional input motions. The finite element procedure takes into consideration pore water pressure …

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Prediction Of Field Sand Liquefaction Caused By Earthquake By Optimum Seeking Method, Du Jian, Zhang Lianyang Mar 1991

Prediction Of Field Sand Liquefaction Caused By Earthquake By Optimum Seeking Method, Du Jian, Zhang Lianyang

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

There are many uncertain factors influencing the field sand liquefaction induced by earthquake, therefore, the predictions of available methods are usually unsatisfactory. In this paper, a new way is developed, i.e., according to the available field sand liquefaction data, the influencing factors are optimized by optimum seeking method, then the prediction is made on the optimized results. By this method, 20 field cases are predicted and the correct rate is 95%. It proves that the suggested method is effective and feasible.

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Prediction Of Liquefaction Behaviour Of Cohesionless Soils, Nakul Dev, Shenbaga R. Kaniraj Mar 1991

Prediction Of Liquefaction Behaviour Of Cohesionless Soils, Nakul Dev, Shenbaga R. Kaniraj

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In order to mitigate earthquake effects occurring because of soil liquefaction, it is essential that the characteristics of soil deposits prone to liquefaction be reliably assessed. The present paper is an attempt in this direction. Liquefaction behaviour of five sands of different gradation characteristics is evaluated under cyclic simple shear conditions and the results have been used to predict the behaviour of Badarpur sand. Fineness Modulus, and a grain size and gradation factor have been used to predict the cyclic strength. The predicted behaviour is then verified by carrying out simple shear tests on Badarpur sand. As the predicted strength …

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Preliminary Research In Predicting Liquefaction Potential Of Saturated Soil Using Vs, Qc, Chang Hong Mar 1991

Preliminary Research In Predicting Liquefaction Potential Of Saturated Soil Using Vs, Qc, Chang Hong

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In the paper, first describes the condition of the testing ground, then the circumstances of test (pressed wave velocity test & static cone penetration test, or vs & SCPT) is presented, i.e., the improvement of SCPT equipment make the test (Vs & SCPT) be in progress simultaneously, meanwhile, the SPT is conducted so that relations are found among the testing data. The results of tests are shown in this paper, the relative curves of sandy soil and sandy loam (Vs & N, qc & N) are gained respectively by way of analysing the test data, and experiential formulas of the …

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Sand Liquefaction With Initial Pore Pressures, Hong Xia Mar 1991

Sand Liquefaction With Initial Pore Pressures, Hong Xia

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Cyclic triaxial tests are conducted on saturated sand samples with different values of initial pore pressures existed throughout the whole process of tests. It is found that the presence of such initial pore pressures (or static hydraulic pressures) tends to increase the liquefaction resistance of the sand samples. The effects of the degrees of saturation are also investigated by conducting another four sets of the cyclic triaxial tests on sand samples with different levels of saturation, since the degree of saturation is a very closely related factor which could be changed by the presence of the initial pore pressures. The …

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Semi-Analytical Iteration Algorithm Of Seismic Pore Pressure, Zhang Jianmin, Xie Dingyi Mar 1991

Semi-Analytical Iteration Algorithm Of Seismic Pore Pressure, Zhang Jianmin, Xie Dingyi

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In this paper a semi-analytical iteration method for predicting the seismic pore-water pressure generation and dissipation in saturated sand layers is suggested. The fundamental formulae including three general analytical solutions under the condition of the 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D dissipation and the calculation principle are briefly presented, and then the suggested method is used in predicting the generation and dissipation of seismic pore water pressure in the 1-D saturated sand layers as an example. The suggested method provides the possibility to consider at a certain extent the change characteristics in permeability and volumetric strain of sand during the seismic action …

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Settlement Calculations Of Clay Layers Induced By Earthquake, Hiroshi Matsuda, Eiichi Hoshiyama, Sukeo Ōhara Mar 1991

Settlement Calculations Of Clay Layers Induced By Earthquake, Hiroshi Matsuda, Eiichi Hoshiyama, Sukeo Ōhara

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

A procedure to calculate the seismic settlement of clayey layers is developed based on the strain-controlled cyclic simple shear test results. By using this procedure the seismic ground settlements are estimated and also the results are compared with the observed ones. In the calculations, six types of accelerogram are used. As a result of estimations, following conclusions are obtained. (1) In the case of a horizontal soil layer of 5 m in height, the settlements are in the range from 3 to 6 cm for a maximum acceleration of about 340 gal. (2) In the case of clay deposits in …

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The Characteristics Of Residual Strength Of Silt Under Liquefaction Conditions, H.-C. Fei, F. Lu Mar 1991

The Characteristics Of Residual Strength Of Silt Under Liquefaction Conditions, H.-C. Fei, F. Lu

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

Silt soil is defined as a soil whose fine particles (D50 < 0.005mm) content is from 3% to 15%. The Tangshan earthquake of 1976 had a magnitude of 7.8 and caused the liquefaction of silt soil in large areas in Tianjin City. The seismic intensity at Tianjin was 8° in downtown. Currently the same criterion for initial liquefaction is applied to silt and sand, e.g., the development of pore pressure, u, equal to the effective confining pressure σ0'. However, in silt residual strength still exists because of cohesion due to the finest of the particles even when u = σ0' due to shaking. The authors employed a superimposed ring shear device to study the characteristics of residual shear strength of silts with different fine particle contents and with various pore pressure ratios, u/ σv' under both dynamic and static loads.

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Utilization Of Cone Penetration Test To Evaluate Liquefaction Potential Of Soils, Teparaksa Wanchai Mar 1991

Utilization Of Cone Penetration Test To Evaluate Liquefaction Potential Of Soils, Teparaksa Wanchai

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

A new practical method for evaluation of soil liquefaction by using the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) was proposed. The critical normalized cone resistance, (qcl)cr was presented in terms of cyclic stress ratio, τ/σ0' , and mean grain size of soils, D50. Based on our proposed CPT-based liquefaction assessing correlation, we presented the typical examples of the use and application of CPT to assess liquefaction potential of past earthquake as well as to verify the effectiveness of soil improvement counterrneasured to increase liquefaction resistance of soil.

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Vibrations Of An Inhomogeneous Layer, Hasan Engin, M. Ertac Erguven Mar 1991

Vibrations Of An Inhomogeneous Layer, Hasan Engin, M. Ertac Erguven

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

In this study, we have investigated vibrations of an inhomogeneous layer which is forced along its bottom. The shear modulus of the layer varies with depth. Considering the layer thickness is constant and the forcing displacement at the bottom is horizontal, shear vibrations will be studied. The solution of the governing equation has been carried out by using Bessel functions including unknown parameter q. Frequencies which make the amplitude of vibrations infinite are called natural frequencies of the layer. Variational of the natural frequencies and the shape of the shearing waves along the thickness of the layer have been investigated …

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Displacement Based Design Of Retaining Walls, Raj Siddharthan, Prakash K. Gowda, Gary M. Norris Mar 1991

Displacement Based Design Of Retaining Walls, Raj Siddharthan, Prakash K. Gowda, Gary M. Norris

International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics

A relatively simple rigid plastic model to study deformation behavior of rigid retaining wall is outlined. Both sliding and tilting modes of deformation are included. The study clearly reveals that wall movement caused by tilting can be substantial. But for high values of foundation soil friction angle, the tilting component of deformation can be omitted. Since the wall movement is affected by the characteristics (strength and frequency) of the excitation history, a number of excitation histories should be considered in retaining wall designs.

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