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Articles 31 - 60 of 1661
Full-Text Articles in Aerospace Engineering
Heterogeneous Boid Swarm Performance Under Environmental And Neighbor Communication Link Variability, Jonathan C. Oxborrow
Heterogeneous Boid Swarm Performance Under Environmental And Neighbor Communication Link Variability, Jonathan C. Oxborrow
Theses and Dissertations
Artificial swarms are of growing interest in numerous fields and use cases. As their utilization increases drones and robots with different capabilities will be required to coordinate for task completion thus creating heterogeneous swarms. Swarm individuals generally communicate with all neighbors inside their sensor range generating a significant amount of message traffic. Previous research of a heterogeneous group in a non-physical environment has shown that restricting communication to only one neighbor of each different capability maintained performance. This work applies that finding to a heterogeneous boid swarm with the addition of varied environmental conditions. The swarm is comprised of three …
Mechanical Response Of Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Gyroid Structures Under Combined Loading, Jay B. Patel
Mechanical Response Of Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Gyroid Structures Under Combined Loading, Jay B. Patel
Theses and Dissertations
This work explored combined tensile and torsional loads applied to additively manufactured Inconel 718 specimens employing Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) structures. The gyroid TPMS unit cell was selected with two variations of cylindrical cell maps, a rectangular cell map, and a spherical cell map. All four variants were tested in an axial-torsion test frame at room temperature using equal parts of vertical and angular displacement control until failure. The combined loading in these tests utilized tension and torsion. The data from the tests were compared to finite element analysis (FEA) models to visualize when yielding was predicted. Finally, the …
Improving Smartphone Gnss Jammer Localization With Cloud-Based Environmental Occlusion Modeling, Glenn H. Jones
Improving Smartphone Gnss Jammer Localization With Cloud-Based Environmental Occlusion Modeling, Glenn H. Jones
Theses and Dissertations
The advancement of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology in modern smartphones has made these devices pervasive in both civilian and military applications. Although smartphone GNSS chipsets are more susceptible to jamming and spoofing than military grade hardware, smartphone networks offer an underutilized opportunity to detect and mitigate threats to position, navigation, and timing (PNT) services essential to the Department of Defense (DoD) and civilian first responders. Traditional methods for geolocating ground-based jamming sources using smartphone GNSS often fail in environments with dense vegetation or significant occlusions, resulting in substantial localization errors.
Graph Neural Network-Based Uav Coverage Planning For Robust And Efficient 3d Environments, Gal Tsfaty
Graph Neural Network-Based Uav Coverage Planning For Robust And Efficient 3d Environments, Gal Tsfaty
Theses and Dissertations
This thesis addresses the challenge of generating optimized UAV waypoints for complete coverage of complex 3D environments, utilizing graph-based computational techniques. The proposed framework replaces computationally intensive steps—triangulation and three-coloring—within the Vantage Waypoint Set Generation Algorithm (VWSGA) pipeline with Graph Neural Networks (GNNs). By learning structural patterns, the GNN achieves scalable and robust triangulation and node classification, enabling enhanced coverage planning in irregular geometries. A novel penalty mechanism ensures alignment with graph structure during adjacency prediction. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of GNNs in balancing accuracy, computational efficiency, and adaptability, advancing UAV coverage optimization.
Visual Segmentation For Autonomous Aircraft Landing On Austere Runways, Alissa M. Owens
Visual Segmentation For Autonomous Aircraft Landing On Austere Runways, Alissa M. Owens
Theses and Dissertations
Autonomous aircraft must land without human intervention, but existing methods rely on GPS or marked runways, which may be unavailable in austere environments. This paper presents a vision-based approach using semantic segmentation to detect runways and estimate aircraft pose by comparing camera and satellite imagery. We detail the model’s training and demonstrate its effectiveness with simulated and real UAV data.
Autonomous Vehicle Path Planning Under Uncertainty, Madison C. Gillan
Autonomous Vehicle Path Planning Under Uncertainty, Madison C. Gillan
Theses and Dissertations
Autonomous vehicles are increasingly being deployed for use in high-stakes and uncertain environments where safe and efficient navigation is critical. In these scenarios, traditional path planning approaches, which rely primarily on deterministic models and fixed assumptions, fall short due to the inherent uncertainty of dynamic threats, sensor inaccuracies, and incomplete information. This research addresses these challenges by developing a novel path-planning methodology that combines the Chance-Constrained Rapidly Exploring Random Tree* (CC-RRT*) algorithm with a probabilistic risk assessment heuristic. This method models uncertainty in sensor detection zones, obstacles in the environment, and the Autonomous Vehicle itself, which allows for uncertainty during …
Proof Of Concept: Using Uas Technology To Accomplish Aerial Roof Inspections, Madison R. Fanning
Proof Of Concept: Using Uas Technology To Accomplish Aerial Roof Inspections, Madison R. Fanning
Theses and Dissertations
With the growing use of simulation across industries, the digital twin remains an underexplored research area, particularly in emergency management and response. Its real-time updating capability is often overlooked due to the misconception that "digital twin" is merely a complex term for simulation. This paper highlights its distinctiveness through an evasion exercise involving two independent entities in a collocated environment. Using a highly integrated virtual environment (HIVE) and internet of things (IoT) devices, we link the physical system with an analytical simulation, demonstrating the impact of lag times in high-pressure scenarios. The computational model leverages agent-based modeling (ABM) and discrete-event …
Approximating Three-Body Trajectories With A Knot Theory Inspired Model For Orbit Generation And Determination, Mason R. Mill
Approximating Three-Body Trajectories With A Knot Theory Inspired Model For Orbit Generation And Determination, Mason R. Mill
Theses and Dissertations
This thesis explores a novel approach to approximating three-body trajectories using a knot theory-inspired model for orbit generation and determination. Traditional methods for solving the Circular Restricted Three-Body Problem (CR3BP) rely on numerical integration and correction schemes to generate trajectories, often requiring iterative refinements. This research investigates the application of knot theory principles—such as torus knots, Alexander polynomials, and Reidemeister moves—to categorize and model complex orbital trajectories in the CR3BP. By leveraging these mathematical tools, the study aims to enhance trajectory prediction, orbit determination, and mission planning for spacecraft operating in the cislunar environment. The results demonstrate that knot theory …
Lethality And Survivability Of Autonomous Self-Sensing Uavs, Jeffrey T. Wilson
Lethality And Survivability Of Autonomous Self-Sensing Uavs, Jeffrey T. Wilson
Theses and Dissertations
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have seen increased usage over the past two decades during the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), operating in low-risk environments against dispersed enemies with minimal counter-drone capabilities. However, as the U.S. military shifts focus to Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) and Large Scale Combat Operations (LSCO), UAVs face significantly higher risks, including frequent and successful attacks, as well as the exploitation of their technology. Battle damage assessment (BDA) is not new; however, autonomous self-assessment by UAVs represents a novel advancement. Currently, UAV BDA relies on manual inspection, requiring approximately eight hours per drone. By adopting self-sensing technology, UAVs …
Reentry Vehicle Trajectory Analysis & Performance (Re-Tap) Development And Application To Spacex Starship, Emma L. Webb
Reentry Vehicle Trajectory Analysis & Performance (Re-Tap) Development And Application To Spacex Starship, Emma L. Webb
Theses and Dissertations
A modeling simulation tool for exo-to-endo atmospheric flight is developed to characterize errors associated with varying simulation fidelities from 3 to 6 degrees-of-freedom (DOF). Engineering approximation errors are quantified and compared with flight data from Apollo 10 and the first Space Shuttle Orbiter reentry (STS-1). The reentry reachability optimal control problem (OCP) is formulated in 6DOF and compared with point-mass solutions, revealing that point-mass solutions oversimplify the problem. A cylindrical reentry vehicle (CRV-1), similar to the SpaceX Starship, is introduced with necessary details for 6DOF analysis. The performance and reentry control capabilities of CRV-1 are captured through 6DOF solutions of …
Design And Evaluation Of A Deployment Mechanism For A Space-Based Origami Mirror In Cubesat Missions, Arturo Luna
Design And Evaluation Of A Deployment Mechanism For A Space-Based Origami Mirror In Cubesat Missions, Arturo Luna
Theses and Dissertations
The space environment’s suboptimal lighting conditions and eclipse periods impede inspection and on-orbit servicing missions. To abate this problem, the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) launched the Mirror Illumination for Reconnaissance and Rendezvous of Orbital Resident Systems (MIRRORS) initiative. This initiative provides augmented illumination to resident space objects (RSOs) by reflecting the sun’s rays from a mirror satellite. Leveraging origami-inspired designs for compact packaging, AFIT developed a cube origami flasher mirror constructed from aluminum panels that unfolds passively via Nitinol hinges. This research investigates the necessary deployment and panning mechanisms for a dynamic, space-based origami mirror to advance the …
Deep Reinforcement Learning For Leo Satellite Grouping, James E. Minteer
Deep Reinforcement Learning For Leo Satellite Grouping, James E. Minteer
Theses and Dissertations
This research investigates jamming evasion using DRL to provide an autonomous solution that repositions a geostationary satellite experiencing directed, terrestrial based jamming. Second, this thesis applies DRL to an area of research for LEO satellite constellations, user grouping, using a portion of an Air Force Research Lab reinforcement learning framework. As LEO satellites orbit the earth, they must constantly re-evaluate not only which users they are able to connect to, but on which of its multiple beams. This model succeeds in finding a balance between maximizing signal strength and minimizing overhead from switching user assignments, all while requiring fewer costly …
An Analytical Approach In Solving A Two-On-One Pursuit Evasion Differential Game With Fast Evader And No-Point Capture, Nathan T. Morrow
An Analytical Approach In Solving A Two-On-One Pursuit Evasion Differential Game With Fast Evader And No-Point Capture, Nathan T. Morrow
Theses and Dissertations
This paper is concerned with a co-planar pursuit-evasion scenario where two Pursuers (P) are after an Evader (E). The players are holonomic/can turn on a dime and their speeds, VP and VE, are constant, but the evader is faster than the pursuers, that is, the speed ratio parameter μ = VE/VP > 1. The Pursuers are endowed with a circular capture disc whose radius l > 0. A differential game (DG) with three states and one parameter is addressed through geometric and analytical methods where a partial solution is outlined and visualized. The game is split …
Extension Of The Circular Restricted N-Body Problem (Crnbp) To Varying Multi-Body Gravitational Systems, Annika J. Gilliam
Extension Of The Circular Restricted N-Body Problem (Crnbp) To Varying Multi-Body Gravitational Systems, Annika J. Gilliam
Theses and Dissertations
Multi-body dynamical models are a valuable tool used to examine certain aspects of spacecraft orbital mechanics by applying assumptions to restrict the problem. The Circular Restricted Three-Body Problem (CR3BP), one of these dynamical models, has been examined extensively in the last few decades; however, this model is not sufficient in the case of more than two massive celestial bodies gravitationally affecting a spacecraft. A novel model called the Circular Restricted N-Body Problem (CRNBP) is studied in this research as an alternative to the traditional CR3BP where necessary. A variety of systems are examined in this thesis, including the Jovian, Saturnian, …
Creating And Analyzing Space Vehicle Seit/Pm Factors, Jordan A. Bosco
Creating And Analyzing Space Vehicle Seit/Pm Factors, Jordan A. Bosco
Theses and Dissertations
The Department of Defense relies on accurate cost estimation to inform budget decisions. Beyond being a critical component of the Defense Acquisition System, cost estimation is a legal requirement in the budgeting process. Cost analysts, therefore, have both a fiduciary and statutory responsibility to produce realistic estimates. Among the many elements of a space system cost estimate is Space Vehicle Systems Engineering, Integration & Test, and Program Management (SEIT/PM). While existing factors aid in estimating SEIT/PM, Space Systems Command is interested in research in alternatives to the current methods and crosschecks for those methods. This study develops a set of …
A Multi-Objective Reinforcement Learning Framework For Title Autonomous On-Orbit Inspections, Austin C. Reynolds
A Multi-Objective Reinforcement Learning Framework For Title Autonomous On-Orbit Inspections, Austin C. Reynolds
Theses and Dissertations
The rapidly evolving landscape of space operations necessitates dynamic and autonomous systems to address complex challenges such as Resident Space Object (RSO) inspections. This research explores the application of a Multi-Objective Reinforcement Learning (MORL) framework to rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO), enabling agents to balance conflicting objectives like time efficiency, fuel conservation, and information gain. Unlike traditional reinforcement learning, MORL allows dynamic reweighting of objectives without retraining, offering adaptability and efficiency in multi-objective environments. The study demonstrates MORL's capabilities through custom 2D and 3D simulations of Hill-Clohessy-Wiltshire (HCW) environments and comparing its performance to traditional RL in RPO scenarios. Tasks …
Commercial Satellite Payload Trends, Alexander B. Krawietz
Commercial Satellite Payload Trends, Alexander B. Krawietz
Theses and Dissertations
This thesis examines the evolving trends in commercial satellite payloads with an emphasis on mass, operating power, and project duration overall and across different payload types, serving as a benchmark for Department of Defense (DoD) leaders to compare against private industry advancements. Utilizing a comprehensive dataset of open-source commercial satellite data, this study identifies significant trends that could influence cost estimation, schedule estimation, and satellite design. The analysis not only highlights the technological progression over several decades but also provides a comparative insight into how the United States and China are positioned in their race for space dominance. Beyond detecting …
Utility Of Self-Sensing Damage Technology Through A2/Ad Drone Combat Simulation, Sidhanth Venkatasubramaniam
Utility Of Self-Sensing Damage Technology Through A2/Ad Drone Combat Simulation, Sidhanth Venkatasubramaniam
Theses and Dissertations
Since the introduction of the first unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), UAVs have consistently improved in capability and versatility. The ability to perform military operations without the risk of losing human life is crucial for the United States military. The trade-off for this versatility is cost, and several ongoing research efforts are being made to improve UAV mission success and the lifespan of UAVs. An area of research that falls under the categories mentioned is self-damage detection. The Air Force Research Laboratories (AFRL) are developing a capability to enable a UAV to assess airframe damage, enabling real-time determination of damage potentially …
Universal Model Based Systems Engineering Rendezvous And Proximity Operations Mission Planner, Thomas J. Kelly
Universal Model Based Systems Engineering Rendezvous And Proximity Operations Mission Planner, Thomas J. Kelly
Theses and Dissertations
This thesis addresses the fragmentation and inefficiencies in current Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPO) mission planning by developing an integrated Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) framework. The research explores the design and implementation of RPO missions using System Modeling Language (SysML) and Matlab-based physics simulation to improve mission planning processes. Key objectives include the standardization of mission requirement characterization, the development of evaluation criteria for mission plans, and the implementation of iterative design methods to refine RPO strategies. The study leverages the Hill-Clohessy-Wiltshire (HCW) equations for initial mission planning, incorporating rigid-body attitude control with properties generated from the physical description, and …
Adiabatic And Overall Effectiveness Superposition Theory For Upstream Phantom Cooling On A Film Cooled Leading Edge, Nathaniel J. Stout
Adiabatic And Overall Effectiveness Superposition Theory For Upstream Phantom Cooling On A Film Cooled Leading Edge, Nathaniel J. Stout
Theses and Dissertations
Film cooling experimentation aims to improve the cooling performance while minimizing the amount of coolant flow redirected from the compressor. The coolant flow that is used for film cooling reduces the maximum thrust any gas turbine engine can produce. Finding creative ways to improve cooling performance without increasing the amount of coolant used, like phantom cooling, is essential for the gas turbine industry to improve engine performance while increasing turbine components’ lifespan. Phantom cooling refers to any secondary cooling effect that propagates downstream from its original cooling application to cool subsequent turbine components. Phantom cooling is actively gaining more attention …
Thin-Filament Pyrometry In A Rotating Detonation Engine, Theodore B. Guetig
Thin-Filament Pyrometry In A Rotating Detonation Engine, Theodore B. Guetig
Theses and Dissertations
Rotating Detonation Engine (RDE) proves beneficial by creating a pressure rise across the combustor rather than a pressure drop seen in traditional aircraft combustors. Coupled with this high pressure is a high temperature in the detonation engine that is difficult to measure as it varies spatially and temporally. Thin-Filament Pyrometry (TFP) was performed on a 6-in RDE to measure these high temperatures. Temperature profiles were obtained over a variety of mass flows, equivalence ratios, and different axial locations within the RDE providing insight into the mixing process and where the heat release occurs. Successful determination of these temperature profiles within …
The Space Rescue Professional: Operationalizing Guardians For The Future, Benjamin Johnis, Robert Bettinger, James Dean
The Space Rescue Professional: Operationalizing Guardians For The Future, Benjamin Johnis, Robert Bettinger, James Dean
Faculty Publications
The escalating competition in space exploration demands a dedicated space rescue capability. This article argues for the establishment of a space rescue professional (SRP) career field within the Department of Defense and the US Space Force. By harnessing existing US Air Force combat rescue expertise and partnering with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Space Force can rapidly develop a robust SRP program with the warrant officer corps as its backbone. This article addresses a critical gap in national space policy to outline a cost-effective dual-service training pipeline and SRP operational roles. Such an investment safeguards astronauts, bolsters US …
High-Speed Aircraft Stability And Control Metrics, Timothy T. Takahashi, Jack A. Griffin, Ramana Grandhi
High-Speed Aircraft Stability And Control Metrics, Timothy T. Takahashi, Jack A. Griffin, Ramana Grandhi
Faculty Publications
This review paper identifies key stability and control screening parameters needed to design low-risk, general-purpose high-speed aircraft. These derive from MIL-STD-8785C, MIL-STD-1797, and older AGARD reports, and are suitable for assessing conceptual high-speed vehicles. We demonstrate their applicability using published ground test, computation, and flight test data from the Bell X-2, North American X-15, Martin X-24A, Northrop HL-10, Lockheed Blackbird (YF-12/SR-71), and North American XB-70 as well as the Rockwell Space Shuttle Orbiter. The relative success of the X-15 and Blackbird and the performance limitations of the others indicate the need to scrutinize lateral-directional stability at the preliminary design phase. …
Navigating Together: The Conav Testbed And Framework For Benchmarking Cooperative Localization, Rohith Boyinine, Jayanth Ammapalli, Anusna Chakraborty, Rajnikant Sharma, Kevin Brink, Clark N. Taylor
Navigating Together: The Conav Testbed And Framework For Benchmarking Cooperative Localization, Rohith Boyinine, Jayanth Ammapalli, Anusna Chakraborty, Rajnikant Sharma, Kevin Brink, Clark N. Taylor
Faculty Publications
This paper presents CoNaV, a comprehensive framework for creating a multi-vehicle cooperative localization (CL) testbed designed to support the benchmarking, development, and deployment of cooperative navigation algorithms. Given the essential role of CL in improving localization accuracy for both defense and civilian applications, CoNaV provides a robust environment for rigorously validating algorithms under real-world conditions. By establishing a benchmark for CL algorithms, CoNaV lays a foundation for advancing research into more sophisticated and distributed CL solutions. This framework highlights the potential of cooperative navigation to enhance multi-vehicle operations and offers a scalable, practical approach for future developments in CL technology.
Dynamic Analysis Of Additively Manufactured Tensegrity Structures, Keivan Davami, Russell A. Rowe, Ben Gulledge, Jesse Park, Ali Beheshti, Anthony N. Palazotto, Fariborz Tavangarian, Sadie Beck
Dynamic Analysis Of Additively Manufactured Tensegrity Structures, Keivan Davami, Russell A. Rowe, Ben Gulledge, Jesse Park, Ali Beheshti, Anthony N. Palazotto, Fariborz Tavangarian, Sadie Beck
Faculty Publications
Herein, we present an analysis, design, and experimental testing of modular prestressed pin-jointed structures constructed from bistable units and inspired by the classical triangular tensegrity prism. Tensegrity structures, characterized by a combination of tension members (cables) and compression members (bars) in a self-equilibrated state, have gained significant attention in engineering over the past two decades due to their unique nonlinear mechanical behavior. The discontinuity of the compression members in tensegrity structures leads to a slightly different failure behavior compared to their lattice structure counterparts, with unprecedented applications. However, traditional fabrication and assembly methods have posed challenges for their widespread adoption. …
Machine Visual Perception From Sim-To-Real Transfer Learning For Autonomous Docking Maneuvers, Derek Worth, Jeffrey Choate, Ryan M. Raettig, Scott L. Nykl, Clark N. Taylor
Machine Visual Perception From Sim-To-Real Transfer Learning For Autonomous Docking Maneuvers, Derek Worth, Jeffrey Choate, Ryan M. Raettig, Scott L. Nykl, Clark N. Taylor
Faculty Publications
This paper presents a comprehensive approach to enhancing autonomous docking maneuvers through machine visual perception and sim-to-real transfer learning. By leveraging relative vectoring techniques, we aim to replicate the human ability to execute precise docking operations. Our study focuses on autonomous aerial refueling as a use case, demonstrating significant advancements in relative navigation and object detection. We introduce a novel method for aligning digital twins using fiducial targets and motion capture data, which facilitates accurate pose estimation from real-world imagery. Additionally, we develop cost-efficient annotation automation techniques for generating high-quality You Only Look Once training data. Experimental results indicate that …
The Impact Of Film Cooling On The Heat Release Within A Rotating Detonation Combustor, Shreyas Ramanagar Sridhara, Antonio Andreini, Marc D. Polanka, Myles D. Bohon
The Impact Of Film Cooling On The Heat Release Within A Rotating Detonation Combustor, Shreyas Ramanagar Sridhara, Antonio Andreini, Marc D. Polanka, Myles D. Bohon
Faculty Publications
Rotating detonation combustors establish a detonation wave that continuously circulates inside a small annulus. The presence of the detonation wave and the downstream oblique shock within the small annulus coupled with high mass flow induces a high heat load to the combustor wall. Preliminary analysis shows that for higher thermal power, internal air cooling alone is not sufficient to remove the heat out of the walls to maintain them below the maximum temperature of the metal. A possible solution is to use film cooling to reduce the heat flux to the combustor walls. One issue, though, is that the introduction …
Data-Driven Sparse Sensor Placement Optimization On Wings For Flight-By-Feel: Bioinspired Approach And Application, Alex C. Hollenbeck, Atticus J. Beachy, Ramana V. Grandhi, Alexander M. Pankonien
Data-Driven Sparse Sensor Placement Optimization On Wings For Flight-By-Feel: Bioinspired Approach And Application, Alex C. Hollenbeck, Atticus J. Beachy, Ramana V. Grandhi, Alexander M. Pankonien
Faculty Publications
Flight-by-feel (FBF) is an approach to flight control that uses dispersed sensors on the wings of aircraft to detect flight state. While biological FBF systems, such as the wings of insects, often contain hundreds of strain and flow sensors, artificial systems are highly constrained by size, weight, and power (SWaP) considerations, especially for small aircraft. An optimization approach is needed to determine how many sensors are required and where they should be placed on the wing. Airflow fields can be highly nonlinear, and many local minima exist for sensor placement, meaning conventional optimization techniques are unreliable for this application. The …
Stereo Vision Relative Navigation Of Airborne Vehicles, Scott L. Nykl, Brian Woolley, John Pecarina
Stereo Vision Relative Navigation Of Airborne Vehicles, Scott L. Nykl, Brian Woolley, John Pecarina
AFIT Patents
An automated aerial formation (AAF) system includes an imaging device mounted on an imaging first aircraft that receives reflected energy from an imaged second aircraft. A controller is communicatively coupled to the imaging device and a flight control system of one of the first and the second aircraft. The controller generates a three-dimensional (3D) point cloud based on the reflected energy and identifies a target 3D model in the 3D point cloud. The controller rotates and scales one of a pre-defined 3D model and the target 3D model to find a 3D point registration between the target 3D model and …
Production Box Cost Estimating Relationships For Dod Avionics, Carla J. Cisneros, Edward D. White, Brandon M. Lucas, Jonathan D. Ritschel, Robert D. Fass, Shawn M. Valentine
Production Box Cost Estimating Relationships For Dod Avionics, Carla J. Cisneros, Edward D. White, Brandon M. Lucas, Jonathan D. Ritschel, Robert D. Fass, Shawn M. Valentine
Faculty Publications
The authors use historical information obtained from the Cost Assessment Data Enterprise to estimate recurring production unit cost for DoD avionics via cost estimating relationships (CERs). The specific modeled responses include mean unit cost, median unit cost, and the 100th production unit cost (T100) utilizing learning curve theory. For T100, the authors adopt both a multiplicative and an additive error for CER comparison. Recommended CERs consist of the mean unit cost and the T100 utilizing a multiplicative error. Moreover, results reveal that weight has a significant effect on cost as well as a potential underaccounting of real price change or …