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Articles 391 - 420 of 3180
Full-Text Articles in Engineering
Energy Analysis Of Rear Door Heat Exchangers In Data Centers With Dynamic Workload Distribution, Sai Abhideep Pundla
Energy Analysis Of Rear Door Heat Exchangers In Data Centers With Dynamic Workload Distribution, Sai Abhideep Pundla
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Theses - Archive
In recent years, applications including IoT (Internet of Things), content delivery, and 5G have created a large demand for low-latency access to data processing and data storage. Traditional centralized data centers weren’t designed with those use cases in mind. Small data centers such as edge computing data centers and colocation data centers house more than half of all servers across the United States. Rear Door Heat exchangers (RDHx) provide an energy-efficient cooling solution to traditional CRAC/CRAH - based cooling methods by localizing the heat removal from the rack. With more control over air distribution through a shorter path between the …
Numerical Analysis Of Hybrid Server Immersed In Synthetic Dielectric Fluid, Bhavana Reddy Mandadi
Numerical Analysis Of Hybrid Server Immersed In Synthetic Dielectric Fluid, Bhavana Reddy Mandadi
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Theses - Archive
In recent years there has been a phenomenal development in cloud computing, networking, virtualization, and storage, which has increased the demand for data centers. With this increase, there is a demand for higher CPU (Central Processing Unit) performance and an increase in the Thermal Design Power (TDP). Maintaining the CPU temperature within the specified parameters for air-cooled servers is a challenge in thermal engineering (due to performance). One of the components of the Data Centers with the largest energy consumption is the cooling system, which uses over 40% of the energy. Advancements in DRAMs and the increased support of CPUs …
Conceptual Gas Turbine Hybrid Engine Design For High Speed Rail Locomotive Propulsion, Frank Roger Tennyson
Conceptual Gas Turbine Hybrid Engine Design For High Speed Rail Locomotive Propulsion, Frank Roger Tennyson
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Theses - Archive
The modern experimental jet train developed by Bombardier Transportation was designed to partner with the present day electrified Acela high speed trains. The Jet train would provide transportation to areas (Rural etc.), as well as transcontinental capabilities to existing towns and cities where electrified propulsion units are not feasible. The Bombardier Jet Train utilizes petroleum-based fuel, diesel engine power, and multiple turboshaft engines, for higher speeds. The Pratt and Whitney PW150 engine design parameters will be used to develop the Conceptual Hybrid Turbo Shaft Engine (CHTS). The newer Conceptual Hybrid Turbo Shaft Engine (CHTS) should increase engine performance, lower specific …
Thermally Charging Capacitor: A New Protocol To Accurately Measure The Thermoelectric Potential, Amit Phalak
Thermally Charging Capacitor: A New Protocol To Accurately Measure The Thermoelectric Potential, Amit Phalak
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Theses - Archive
Harvesting energy from waste heat would benefit in creating sustainable systems. Specifically, thermoelectric energy conversion can be used for low-grade waste heat recovery. However, the efficiency of conventional solid-state (i.e., semiconductor) has reached to the upper limit and could not make any advancement for more than 30 years. As a paradigm shift from solid-state thermoelectric conversion, in this study, ionic thermoelectric phenomena in liquid are explored. An electrolyte, with disproportionate size of anions and cations, when subjected to a temperature gradient can experience induced ion separation. In the phenomenon known as “Soret effect”, the smaller ions with higher mobility move …
An Integrated Design Tool For Tow-Steered Composite Laminate In Abaqus, Twinkle Kothari
An Integrated Design Tool For Tow-Steered Composite Laminate In Abaqus, Twinkle Kothari
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Theses - Archive
The material of choice for contemporary aircraft and its component design over the past few decades has shifted more and more toward fiber-reinforced composites. This is mainly due to the improved strength, lightweight, corrosion resistance, design flexibility, and durability of composites over traditional metals. Advanced tailorable composites such as tow-steered composites can be designed and fabricated with fibers following prescribed curvilinear paths, which provides improved mechanical performance compared with unidirectional fiber-reinforced composites (UDFRCs). However, the potential of tow-steered composites oftentimes fails to be exploited due to the lack of design tools. Currently, there are no commercially available design tools for …
Physical Modeling Of Filament Growth And Resistive Switching In Metal Oxide-Based Rram, Kena Zhang
Physical Modeling Of Filament Growth And Resistive Switching In Metal Oxide-Based Rram, Kena Zhang
Material Science and Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Metal oxide-based resistive random-access memories (RRAM) exhibit several excellent performances, such as nanosecond switching speed, large write-erase endurance, and long retention time, and can potentially replace the traditional circuit elements for use as the fundamental units in next-generation hardware deep-learning or neuromorphic systems. The functionality of a metal oxide-based RRAM is attributed to an oxygen vacancy (V_O^(..))-rich conductive filament (CF), which initially forms, and later dissolves or regrows inside the oxide layer during the resistive switching process. However, the complicated interplays among the coexisting chemical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal effects during the formation, growth, and rupture of the CFs make …
Effects Of Graphene In High-Density Polyethylene Microfibers, Ashish Lal Sivadas Anilal
Effects Of Graphene In High-Density Polyethylene Microfibers, Ashish Lal Sivadas Anilal
Material Science and Engineering Theses - Archive
High-Density Polyethylene uniquely can induce banded spherulites as it is crystallized from its melt. We studied the effects of graphene in the crystallography of banded HDPE by examining parameters such as the extent of twisting, spherulitic growth, and nucleation density. The application of graphene as a multifunctional filler in polymer matrices is a great topic of interest because graphene at low concentrations can bring many improvements in mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. We synthesized graphene oxide by chemical oxidation of graphite and further studied its effects in the twisted crystallography of HDPE. Three batches of fibers were extruded: two batches …
Sub-10k Cold-Electron Injection To Silicon At Room Temperature, Ojas Tushar Bhayde
Sub-10k Cold-Electron Injection To Silicon At Room Temperature, Ojas Tushar Bhayde
Material Science and Engineering Theses - Archive
The Fermi-Dirac thermal excitation of electrons results in unwanted off-state leakage currents in metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), leading to excessive power consumption in modern electronic devices. The electron thermal excitation results in a theoretical subthreshold slope limit of 60 mV/decade at room temperature, which forces the devices to use a high supply voltage leading to high power consumption. This study investigates a new architecture capable of suppressing electron thermal excitation by using a quantum well (QW) as an energy filter. The QW energy filter is composed of a tunneling barrier 1 (0.5 to 1 nm Al2O3 or 0.3-1 nm Si3N4 …
An In Vitro 3d Model To Investigate Iol: Posterior Lens Capsule Interactions On Lens Epithelial Cell Responses, Joyita Roy
Bioengineering Dissertations - Archive
ABSTRACT: Posterior Capsule Opacification (PCO) is the most common complication associated with Intraocular Lens (IOL) implantation. The disease is caused by the infiltration and proliferation of Lens Epithelial Cells (LEC) into the interface between the IOL and Posterior Lens Capsule (PLC). The severity of these cell responses depends on a lot of factors like the IOL design, IOL material, and interaction between the IOL and the posterior lens capsule. While some studies have also shown that adsorption of certain proteins present in the PLC, like fibronectin, may affect IOL-induced PCO in the clinical setting, the mechanism governing such interactions is …
Targeted Drug-Loaded Nanoparticle System (Tdnps) To Ameliorate And Treat Idiopathic Lung Fibrosis, Harish Ramachandramoorthy
Targeted Drug-Loaded Nanoparticle System (Tdnps) To Ameliorate And Treat Idiopathic Lung Fibrosis, Harish Ramachandramoorthy
Bioengineering Dissertations - Archive
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal progressive disease with a dismal prognosis and 3-5 years of survival. Up to date, there are no effective treatments, and a few current therapies that do not ameliorate the pulmonary fibrosis but rather just increase the survival time by 2-3 years. The major factor limiting the treatment is the lack of targeted therapies to deliver the drugs past the mucosa, into the disease microenvironment. To combat this disease, we proposed a localized therapy via our targeted drug-loaded nanoparticles (TDNPs) to effectively deliver drugs and treat lung fibrosis. Our objective was to design TDNPs …
Performance Evaluation Of The Modified Moisture Barrier In Stabilizing Shallow Slope Failures, Muhasina Manjur Dola
Performance Evaluation Of The Modified Moisture Barrier In Stabilizing Shallow Slope Failures, Muhasina Manjur Dola
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Each year significant number of highway slope failures are reported in the United States, especially in states like Texas where expansive clayey soil is prevalent. Slopes constructed over expansive clay often experience recurring shallow failures following their construction which poses maintenance problems to the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT). These shallow slope failures can be primarily attributed to the considerable volume change that expansive clay soil undergoes from seasonal climatic variation. Furthermore, under unsaturated conditions during dry periods, high matric suction (i.e., negative porewater pressure) exists in soil slopes. The existence of matric suction contributes to the shear strength of …
Development Of A Decesion Tree To Rehabilitate Or Replace The St. Francis Bridge Over Ih-30, Md Farhan Abir
Development Of A Decesion Tree To Rehabilitate Or Replace The St. Francis Bridge Over Ih-30, Md Farhan Abir
Civil Engineering Theses - Archive
ABSTRACT: The ASCE infrastructure report card indicated that about 42% of the nation’s bridges are over 50 years old, and 7.5% of the bridges are structurally deficient. The 61-year-old St. Francis bridge over IH-30 is one of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) bridges that exhibit significant deterioration in the superstructure, including potholes and delamination in the deck. The bridge was load posted to 28,000 lb. limit and has substandard vertical and horizontal clearances to the bottom chord of the beams and supporting piers, respectively, which creates a high risk for vehicle impact. In 2017, an over-height truck struck the …
Study Of The Impact Of Atmospheric Variability On Subsurface Methane Emissions: Application To Leak Detection And Quantification For Underground Natural Gas Pipeline Leaks, Shanru Tian
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Natural gas (NG), taken as a bridging fuel for achieving a low-carbon future, has rapidly grown to be a significant component of the global energy system and requires extensive pipeline infrastructures, most of them buried underground. Fugitive methane (CH4) emissions from NG pipeline leaks pose environmental, safety, and economic threats to the public. An effective leak detection and quantification (LDAQ) survey method is critical to identifying a leak and assessing the size when it has occurred, thus initiating appropriate response actions to repair it and accounting for the environmental risks accurately. However, gaps exist between LDAQ survey methods, and the …
Investigation Of Models To Predict The Remaining Useful Life Of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe, Ahmad Mahmoud Jibreen
Investigation Of Models To Predict The Remaining Useful Life Of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe, Ahmad Mahmoud Jibreen
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
The water distribution system in the United States consists of 2.2 million miles of pipelines with water main breaks that the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 2021 Report Card estimated results in six billion gallons of drinking water lost daily. Detecting the state of pipeline deterioration should always be a top priority in the water pipeline industry This dissertation statistically evaluates data from more than 70,000 electromagnetic inspections that have been performed since the installation of these pipes in 1971. The scope of this dissertation is related to performance and degradation of prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) which is …
Finite Element Approach On Minimization Of Cracks At I-Girder Ends Induced By Prestress, Sangit Rauniyar
Finite Element Approach On Minimization Of Cracks At I-Girder Ends Induced By Prestress, Sangit Rauniyar
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Prestressed I-girders are one of the very commonly and widely used girders for bridges. It is produced at precast plant and transported to bridge site. To produce a prestressed I-girder, strands are first pulled and concrete is poured in I-girder’s formwork. Once the concrete reaches a desired strength, strands are released which induce prestress in I-girder. There are mainly two types of design for I-girders-one that requires debonding of strands at the end of I-girders and another that requires harping of strands at the end of I-girders. The debonding and harping of strands are done to reduce tension at the …
Improving The Analysis And Prediction Of Coastal Flooding During Hurricane Landfalls Through Coupled And Integrated Modeling, Md Arifur Rahman
Improving The Analysis And Prediction Of Coastal Flooding During Hurricane Landfalls Through Coupled And Integrated Modeling, Md Arifur Rahman
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
ABSTRACT: As the intensity and frequency of landfalling tropical storms are likely on the rise in a warming climate, coastal communities are increasingly being exposed to flooding caused by storm surges compounded by heavy rainfall. Prediction and reanalysis of storm surges, especially compound flooding, rely on wind and pressure fields either from parametric tropical cyclone wind models or numerical weather model reanalysis. Both are subject to significant errors during landfall. Besides, land surface attributes and different storm structures influence the intensity and location of compound flooding in coastal areas. Therefore, this dissertation aims to improve the analysis and prediction of …
Performance Evaluation Of Recycled Plastic Pins In Two Layers To Stabilize Deep Slope Failures, Sachini Madanayake
Performance Evaluation Of Recycled Plastic Pins In Two Layers To Stabilize Deep Slope Failures, Sachini Madanayake
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Slope failures are a common occurrence in highway embankments throughout Texas due to the presence of high plastic clays with expansive behavior. Although shallow slope failures are prevalent, slope failures extending deeper into the slope occur due to the development of micro and macro cracks. The cracks facilitate the infiltration of rainwater deeper into the slope over time. Slope failures incur thousands of dollars’ worth of repairs every year for transportation departments across the country. Recycled Plastic Pins (RPP) have been identified as an effective, cost efficient, and sustainable solution to stabilize shallow failures. The resistance of RPP is mobilized …
Additive Manufacturing Of Stretchable Piezo-Resistive Sensors: Fabrication And Performance Evaluation, Mohammad Ahnaf Shahriar
Additive Manufacturing Of Stretchable Piezo-Resistive Sensors: Fabrication And Performance Evaluation, Mohammad Ahnaf Shahriar
Industrial, Manufacturing, and Systems Theses - Archive
Additive manufacturing provides a distinctive layer-wise production method, which is efficient and effective, especially when fabricating products with complex designs and/or multiple materials. One of the promising applications of additive manufacturing is 3D printing flexible piezo-resistive sensors, which measure the strain of human motions by characterizing the changes in resistance. In this research, fused deposition modeling is used to fabricate stretchable piezo-resistive sensors that use thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) as the stretchable layer and the mixture of TPU and carbon nanotube (CNT) as the electrically conductive layer. Extensive experimental efforts are dedicated to investigating proper mixing technique, filament preparation method, and …
Autonomous Teaming Of Multileader System - Robust Cluster Formation Approach, Maryam N. Naleini
Autonomous Teaming Of Multileader System - Robust Cluster Formation Approach, Maryam N. Naleini
Electrical Engineering Dissertations - Archive
The cluster consensus problem of Multileader MAS Is considered and the clustering problem of interconnected multileader systems is formulated as a disturbance attenuation problem. For the first time, it's proved that the multileader MAS can reach cluster consensus without limiting the communication between the clusters. The combination of Small Gain Theorem and H8 optimization has been designed in the graphical differential game platform to prove the stability for the system. At the end, an online off-policy reinforcement learning algorithm is developed to find the solution to the H8 optimal problem of multileader MAS with completely unknown systems.
Machine Learning For Target Detection Using Uwb Radar Sensor Networks, Dheeral Naresh Bhole
Machine Learning For Target Detection Using Uwb Radar Sensor Networks, Dheeral Naresh Bhole
Electrical Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Machine learning (ML) has recently been used to solve critical problems. This dissertation focuses on developing systems using Ultra-Wideband (UWB) wireless sensor networks and machine learning to solve critical tasks such as target detection in various challenging scenarios. These tasks have been researched for several years and efforts have been made to achieve universal solutions. In the first part of this dissertation, we have proposed a system to detect metallic targets in foliage environment. Mission critical systems need to be ready for the harsh working environment such as dense foliage, water bodies, rain, heavy winds and other natural challenges. Extreme …
Evaluation Of Relationship Between Sulfate Content And Electrical Resistivity, Zobair Ahmed
Evaluation Of Relationship Between Sulfate Content And Electrical Resistivity, Zobair Ahmed
Civil Engineering Theses - Archive
Texas soils typically have sulfate content due to certain geologic formation types. Soil sulfate needs to be identified and quantified to minimize damage to infrastructure caused by sulfate-induced heave. Electrical Resistivity Imaging can identify the presence of sulfate content in the soil. Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) is a non-destructive and fast way of obtaining continuous soil substructure profiles. Moisture fluctuations and soil heterogeneities can be found using an ERI approach. As a result, ERI is growing in popularity as a tool in geotechnical engineering, yet at the moment, it only offers qualitative data. It can be challenging to determine quantitative …
Numerical Simulation Of Hydrodynamic Forces On Riverine And Coastal Bridges Subjected To Extreme Weather Events, Fahad Pervaiz
Numerical Simulation Of Hydrodynamic Forces On Riverine And Coastal Bridges Subjected To Extreme Weather Events, Fahad Pervaiz
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
ABSTRACT: Recent bridge failures due to hurricane-generated storm surges and riverine flood events have highlighted the vulnerability of bridge infrastructure to extreme hydrodynamic loading. In addition to posing an immediate risk to human life, bridge failures can hinder evacuation planning and emergency response efforts. Changes in flood frequency and intensity due to climate change and urbanization may alter the hydrodynamic conditions along urban streams, further stressing bridge infrastructure designed based on historical flow conditions. As a result, quantifying the structural response and stability of bridges under current and future hydrodynamic conditions is crucial to improving transportation safety and efficiency. This …
Microplastic Risk Characterization Of Plastic Road, Md Shams Razi Shopnil
Microplastic Risk Characterization Of Plastic Road, Md Shams Razi Shopnil
Civil Engineering Dissertations - Archive
In recent past, the act of waste recycling has been diversified in manifolds across the world leading to evolution of newer recycling technique and fresh recycled product. Albeit plastic is one of those waste materials which is getting extremely difficult to get substantially recycled because of its record-breaking production, consumption, and its wide range of variations in properties ultimately leading to substandard recycling status of plastics globally. This seemingly poor status of waste plastics recycling against the gargantuan amount of fresh plastic products being added to consumer stream gives rise to a menacing one directional problem: Plastic Pollution, which is …
Reuse Of Recycled Plastic For Subgrade Treatment, Jerin Tasnim
Reuse Of Recycled Plastic For Subgrade Treatment, Jerin Tasnim
Civil Engineering Theses - Archive
Disposal of solid waste becomes a global issue due to it contains a large amount of non- degradable polymers and may lead to many environmental issues. With the scarcity of space for landfilling and due to ever increasing cost, finding ways to handle these wastes without endangering the environment is crucial. One of these methods is to use plastic wastes as one of the pavement materials. In this study, a new method of subgrade soil stabilization of pavement is proposed where soil will be stabilized by mixing only plastic with soil for the treatment of subgrade. In order to demonstrate …
Forming Coalitions And Sharing Payoffs In N-Person Normal Form Games, Emma Owusu Dwobeng
Forming Coalitions And Sharing Payoffs In N-Person Normal Form Games, Emma Owusu Dwobeng
Industrial, Manufacturing, and Systems Engineering Dissertations - Archive
For a given n-person normal form game, we form all possible sets of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive coalitions of the n players. For each set of coalitions, we define a coalitional semi-cooperative game as one in which these coalitions are taken as the players of this new game, each coalition tries to maximize the sum of its individual players’ payoffs, and the players within a coalition cooperate to do so. For any coalitional semi-cooperative game, the goal of the original n players is to improve their individual payoffs obtained in a Greedy Scalar Equilibrium (GSE) of the original game, …
Supplementary Information For "Understanding Mid-To Large Underground Leaks From Buried Pipelines As Affected By Soil And Atmospheric Conditions – Field Scale Experimental Study", Navodi J.R.R. Jayarathne, Kathleen M. Smits, Stuart N. Riddick, Daniel J. Zimmerle, Younki Cho, Michelle Schwartz, Fancy Cheptonui, Kevan Cameron, Peter Ronney
Supplementary Information For "Understanding Mid-To Large Underground Leaks From Buried Pipelines As Affected By Soil And Atmospheric Conditions – Field Scale Experimental Study", Navodi J.R.R. Jayarathne, Kathleen M. Smits, Stuart N. Riddick, Daniel J. Zimmerle, Younki Cho, Michelle Schwartz, Fancy Cheptonui, Kevan Cameron, Peter Ronney
Earth & Environmental Sciences Datasets - Archive
Reducing the amount of leaked natural gas (NG) from pipelines from production to use has become a high priority in efforts to cut anthropogenic emissions of methane and ensure public safety. However, tracking and evaluating NG pipeline leaks, especially at moderate to high flow rates, requires a better understanding of the leak from the source to the detector as well as more robust quantification methods. To better understand fugitive emissions from NG pipelines, we developed a field scale testbed that simulates mid and high-pressure gas leaks from belowground natural gas infrastructure. The system is equipped with subsurface, surface and atmospheric …
Optofluidic Droplet Lasers Enabled By Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer, Fariba Kenarangi
Optofluidic Droplet Lasers Enabled By Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer, Fariba Kenarangi
Electrical Engineering Dissertations - Archive
ABSTRACT: Over the past decade, optofluidic lasers have gained much popularity owing to their unique optical and mechanical properties. Optofluidic lasers are flexible, reconfigurable, easy to fabricate and their emission spectrum can be dynamically tuned. One type of these lasers with high Q-factors, is optofluidic droplet laser, which is a miniaturized ring resonator consists of liquid gain medium and optical microcavity made of two immiscible liquid phases. As light couples into the cavity, the whispering gallery mode will be guided around the concaved closed loop surface and it will be constantly reflected owing to total internal reflection. Due to its …
Infrared And Fluorescent Thermal Imaging And Thermal Transport Characterization Of Engineering Devices And Systems, Swapnil Suryakant Salvi
Infrared And Fluorescent Thermal Imaging And Thermal Transport Characterization Of Engineering Devices And Systems, Swapnil Suryakant Salvi
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Infrared (IR) thermal imaging is widely used for non-contact temperature measurement in engineering. IR camera detects thermal emissions from the target surface in a certain wavelength range, which, using the known surface emissivity, can be converted to a pixel-by-pixel temperature map. Fluorescence imaging also works along similar lines. This Ph.D. dissertation contributes towards thermal imaging and thermal transport characterization in engineering devices/systems using infrared and fluorescence imaging. In the first two parts of this work, infrared thermal imaging is used for measuring thermal conductivity of thin wires and for spotting unusual activities in a three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC). In …
In-Situ Observation Of Extrusion Process In Thermoplastic Material Extrusion Based Additive Manufacturing, Ye Hong
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Dissertations - Archive
In thermoplastic material extrusion-based additive manufacturing, solid polymer filaments are fed into extruders to generate extrudates that are needed to build 3D plastic products. There is a finite gap between the inner surface of an extruder and the edge of a filament. This gap facilitates the insertion and translation of the filament inside the extruder. However, it is still not clear how the gap is filled during the extrusion. The lack of this information makes it difficult to model the temperature distribution and flow profile during the extrusion. In this work, we built experimental apparatus to directly observe the gap-filling …
Multi-Objective Aero/Mechanical Design Optimization Of Gp Turbine Blades Platform Contour Using Adjoint Solver And Impact On Secondary Losses, Mostafa Soliman
Multi-Objective Aero/Mechanical Design Optimization Of Gp Turbine Blades Platform Contour Using Adjoint Solver And Impact On Secondary Losses, Mostafa Soliman
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Dissertations - Archive
Gas Turbines Hot Gas Path components represent the major contribution to generating power in Gas Turbines They are the components that mainly extract power from hot gasses that come out of the combustion Chamber (Combustor). Due to harsh temperature and environment, these components are vulnerable to high thermal and mechanical stresses which affect its durability, life, and efficiency. Hot Gases go through these components can reach very high max temperature. Max blade alloy metal temp in Gas Path blades can reach 1800-1900 F. Because of these severe operation conditions, a very careful prediction of stresses, thermal distribution, losses and flow …