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Full-Text Articles in Higher Education and Teaching

The Role Of Critical Professional Development In Transforming The Teaching And Learning Practices Of White Faculty: Elevating Racial Consciousness To Center Equity, Kaitlyn E. Siner-Cappas Aug 2026

The Role Of Critical Professional Development In Transforming The Teaching And Learning Practices Of White Faculty: Elevating Racial Consciousness To Center Equity, Kaitlyn E. Siner-Cappas

Graduate Doctoral Dissertations

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of white faculty participants in a critical professional development (CPD) program that seeks to enhance racial consciousness at a public research university. The goal of the study was to understand any perceived changes in faculty positionality and teaching and learning practices following their participation in the program, as well as identify the extent to which the program supported participants in a journey towards enhanced racial consciousness.

Four themes characterized the experiences of faculty participants in this CPD program: 1) experiencing the benefits of a learning community, 2) gaining confidence in …


"We Can't Shut The Classroom Door": Crossing Borderlands Of Practice In The Writing Methods Course, Vanessa C. Sullivan Jul 2026

"We Can't Shut The Classroom Door": Crossing Borderlands Of Practice In The Writing Methods Course, Vanessa C. Sullivan

Teaching/Writing: The Journal of Writing Teacher Education

This article shares the findings of a qualitative study that engaged ten writing teacher educators from across the United States in interviews, curriculum submission, and a mapping practice to explore the ways that they perceive and enact the teaching of the writing methods course within dynamic and complex settings. Using a conceptual framework of borderlands of practice to gain insight into the discourses and value systems that surround the course, findings revealed the overlapping domains that impact the preparation of teachers in the field of writing, the key values that guide the way that participants approach their teaching, and the …


Listening To Learn: Preservice Teachers’ Voice On What Matters Most In Their University Preparation Programs, David Wolff, Scott Klimek, Elizabeth Y. Dale Jul 2026

Listening To Learn: Preservice Teachers’ Voice On What Matters Most In Their University Preparation Programs, David Wolff, Scott Klimek, Elizabeth Y. Dale

The Interactive Journal of Global Leadership and Learning

This study explores the perspectives of preserviceteacher candidates on the topics in education they perceive as the most important and urgent as they prepare for their first year of teaching. Utilizing quantitative methodology, the study aims to identify and prioritize educational topics sixty (n = 60) preservice teacher candidates believed were critical to their professional development. Participants are asked to rate the topics based on two criteria: urgency and importance. Each topic is rated on a scale from 0 to 5, where 0 indicated unfamiliarly with the topic, 1 indicated low urgency or importance, and 5 indicates high urgency …


Collaborating With Our Ai Research Companion: Exploring The Use Of Microsoft Copilot To Conduct Inductive And Deductive Coding In Qualitative Research, David Wolff, Melissa Wolff, Mark Diacopoulos Jul 2026

Collaborating With Our Ai Research Companion: Exploring The Use Of Microsoft Copilot To Conduct Inductive And Deductive Coding In Qualitative Research, David Wolff, Melissa Wolff, Mark Diacopoulos

The Interactive Journal of Global Leadership and Learning

Higher Education faculty balance time in teaching, scholarship, and service, along with many other duties in their roles (Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, 2024). In our efforts to be stewards of our time and craft, faculty look for ways to be more efficient in these areas. With the increase of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in our personal and professional lives, this paper discusses the use of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI), Microsoft Copilot, as an analytic tool in the qualitative data analysis process. Qualitative data was collected from transcripts of recorded meetings and an online journal that included text and …


Preparing Teachers To Read The Data: Strengthening Data Literacy For Early Literacy Decision-Making, Tevia Q. Strand Jul 2026

Preparing Teachers To Read The Data: Strengthening Data Literacy For Early Literacy Decision-Making, Tevia Q. Strand

The Interactive Journal of Global Leadership and Learning

Teachers are increasingly expected to use literacy screening and benchmark data to guide instruction, identify student needs, and participate in multi-tiered systems of support. However, pre-service and early-career teachers may enter the profession without sufficient preparation to interpret assessment data or connect benchmark patterns to instructional action. This white paper examines the gap between teacher preparation and the realities of K-12 data use, with particular attention to early literacy decision-making. Drawing from Bradbury’s discussion of teacher preparation and the changing realities of education, this paper argues that data literacy is an essential part of preparing teachers for equitable classroom practice. …


The Role Of Perceived Academic And Peer Support In Mitigating Imposter Syndrome Among Adhd Students, Eden Morley Dr Jul 2026

The Role Of Perceived Academic And Peer Support In Mitigating Imposter Syndrome Among Adhd Students, Eden Morley Dr

Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities

Background: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in higher education is associated with significant executive functioning deficits and performance inconsistencies. These challenges, alongside heightened rejection sensitivity, may predispose students to the Imposter Phenomenon (IP)—the persistent belief that one’s success is undeserved. While social and academic supports are known to buffer psychological distress, their specific role in mitigating IP within the ADHD student population remains under-researched.

Objectives: This study investigated the severity of IP among undergraduate students with ADHD and examined the protective roles of Perceived Social Support (PSS) and Perceived Academic Support (PAS), while exploring gender as a potential moderator.

Methodology: A cross-sectional …


Called To Accuracy, Brick By Brick: Recordkeeping And Reporting Amid Cultural Pressures And Training Gaps, Amber L. Wilson, Sarah J. Boettger, Janet K. Brown, Kjell Fenn, Jessica E. Kuehne, David L. Ream Jun 2026

Called To Accuracy, Brick By Brick: Recordkeeping And Reporting Amid Cultural Pressures And Training Gaps, Amber L. Wilson, Sarah J. Boettger, Janet K. Brown, Kjell Fenn, Jessica E. Kuehne, David L. Ream

Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching & Learning

This research investigates how faculty at Christian higher education interpret the impact of expected recordkeeping and reporting. The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions and expectations of recordkeeping and reporting that impact job satisfaction. By examining recordkeeping and reporting and the influence of culture as key factors affecting job satisfaction in Christian higher education, insights were gathered through six faculty member interviews. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews, journals, and discussion board posts. This transcendental phenomenological study sought to explore the lived experiences of six faculty members at a large private Christian university in the southeastern …


Pedagogy Of Care: Exploring Climate Justice Frameworks In Cuny Undergraduate Courses, Ismerlyn Gonzalez Jun 2026

Pedagogy Of Care: Exploring Climate Justice Frameworks In Cuny Undergraduate Courses, Ismerlyn Gonzalez

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Climate justice centers the human rights of communities most impacted by the climate crisis rather than solely focusing on the scientific aspects of environmental challenges and disasters. Higher education institutions play a key role in advancing climate justice education, but research shows that frameworks are not consistently defined across institutions. The IRB-approved study that produced the findings in this capstone sought to explore how climate justice frameworks are implemented at the CUNY undergraduate level and learn more about the instructors delivering these courses. From February to April 2026, instructors from different CUNY undergraduate campuses were surveyed, interviewed, and asked to …


Part-Time Faculty In Art And Design Higher Education: Support & Challenges, Katherine Ye Jin Lee May 2026

Part-Time Faculty In Art And Design Higher Education: Support & Challenges, Katherine Ye Jin Lee

Masters Theses

This thesis investigates the challenge part-time faculty in art and design higher education face and the institutional support they receive through a case study conducted at Rhode Island School of Design (RISD). Through an extensive, anonymous and voluntary part-time faculty survey across different departments at RISD, it examines: 1) current perceptions of available institutional & departmental teaching support, 2) teaching approach & practice, and 3) student-faculty engagement. The research aimed to gather data on challenges that are unique to part-time faculty in art and design fields, especially in relation to faculty-student engagement to understand areas where they can be better …


Reining It In: From Reflexive To Intentional Instructor Self-Disclosure, Rona Miles, Alla Chavarga, Chelsea Blaney May 2026

Reining It In: From Reflexive To Intentional Instructor Self-Disclosure, Rona Miles, Alla Chavarga, Chelsea Blaney

Essays in Education

Instructor self-disclosure is often promoted as a means of humanizing the classroom environment and improving learning outcomes. Though disclosure has the potential to be highly beneficial, it also carries a risk to students and learning that is often overlooked. This paper presents a point of departure perspective that instructor self-disclosure should be approached with far greater caution than most educators consider. We argue that disclosures should occur only when they are justified with a clear pedagogical purpose. Casual or spontaneous disclosures, by contrast, carry sufficient potential for unintended harm such that their risks outweigh presumed benefits to classroom rapport and …


Exploring The Impact Of Ungrading On Student Engagement And Motivation In A First-Year Composition Class, Mary B. Gruis May 2026

Exploring The Impact Of Ungrading On Student Engagement And Motivation In A First-Year Composition Class, Mary B. Gruis

Dissertations, Theses, and Projects

This study investigated the association between student engagement, motivation, and self-efficacy in college-level writing-intensive courses using an ungraded approach. Motivated by disillusionment with traditional grading methods and inspired by texts on equitable grading and culturally responsive teaching, the researcher explored how ungrading could foster deeper learning and equitable educational practices. Grounded in Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy framework, this qualitative case study examined the lived experiences of first-year composition students at a two-year institution. Data collection included student interviews, student reflections, and an instructor interview. The analysis revealed themes aligned with self-efficacy, engagement, and motivation, suggesting that ungrading positively impacted students' perceptions …


The Brain And Becoming: Integrating Play And Performance-Based Learning In The Community College Classroom, Hannah M. Green May 2026

The Brain And Becoming: Integrating Play And Performance-Based Learning In The Community College Classroom, Hannah M. Green

English

Instruction in the community college classroom is in need of a shift, according to neuroscientific, pedagogical, and demographic data. Primarily, students in today’s community college classrooms are instructed in the form of lectures (Nilson 106), but research has shown that game-based learning would be the way to enhance learning experiences for these adult learners. Game-based learning specifically takes form in student learning through games, interactive reading activities such as performance pedagogy, discussions, and small group work. While research shows that play-based learning at the community college level is neurologically beneficial for students, there is a gap in implementing play-based learning …


From Confidence To Competence: Embedding Critical Genai Literacy In Physician Associate Education, Chanceeth Chandrakanthan, Amy H. Donaldson-Perrott Mrs, Jane Secker, Julie Voce, Tamara S. Ritsema May 2026

From Confidence To Competence: Embedding Critical Genai Literacy In Physician Associate Education, Chanceeth Chandrakanthan, Amy H. Donaldson-Perrott Mrs, Jane Secker, Julie Voce, Tamara S. Ritsema

Journal Of Indian Physician Associates

Background: Generative artificial intelligence is now embedded in how many healthcare students learn. Tools provide rapid explanations, summaries and practice questions, but use does not equal AI literacy, particularly where accuracy, medicines safety and guideline alignment matter.

Objective: To describe current use of generative AI by Physician Associate students and outline a practical approach to teaching critical AI literacy.

Methods: Educational evaluation using three activities: (1) baseline survey of students about use and attitudes, (2) an embedded compare and critique session in applied pharmacology where small groups assessed AI answers against trusted UK sources, including BNF and NICE guidance, followed …


One Faculty, One Mission: A Unified Faculty Model For California Community Colleges, Debbie Klein Apr 2026

One Faculty, One Mission: A Unified Faculty Model For California Community Colleges, Debbie Klein

Journal of Collective Bargaining in the Academy

This article advances a unified, non-tiered faculty model as essential to fulfilling the mission of the California Community Colleges (CCC) system. Although the system is charged with realizing open access and educational equity, nearly 70% of faculty serve in part-time or contingent roles—often without proportional compensation, institutional stability, or meaningful participation in governance. Drawing on research demonstrating that faculty working conditions shape student learning conditions, the article argues that structural employment inequities undermine the system’s democratic promise. Situating the proposal within national “One Faculty” efforts and recent legislative attention to pay parity in California, it demonstrates that reform is both …


Testimonios De Una Estudiante De Doctorado: Regaining Joy In Graduate School Through Research-Practice Partnerships, Sophia Piral Lee Apr 2026

Testimonios De Una Estudiante De Doctorado: Regaining Joy In Graduate School Through Research-Practice Partnerships, Sophia Piral Lee

The Qualitative Report

Through an epistolary critical autoethnography and Latina and Chicana feminist framework, I explore the question of how international graduate students of color can overcome cultural, linguistic, ethnoracial, and social class isolation on predominantly white campuses and in college towns. By writing a letter to my mother (one of my methods for survival in academia), I share my challenges as a Guatemalan, first-time mom, first-generation college student, international student, and non-English native speaker in graduate school during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. At the same time, this writing helps me recognize how I overcame my isolation and regained my joy and …


National E-Criteria In Finnish Higher Education: A Tpack-Informed Policy Analysis, Ejike Okonkwo Apr 2026

National E-Criteria In Finnish Higher Education: A Tpack-Informed Policy Analysis, Ejike Okonkwo

Essays in Education

Responding to calls for a deeper understanding of contextual factors shaping learning, this paper examines the Digivisio 2030 e-criteria, a recently introduced national higher education quality framework designed to enhance digital pedagogy. Document analysis was used to examine five key features of the e-criteria: research-based, modularity, diversity, accessibility, and availability. The findings reveal that the e-criteria function as structural enablers, offering non-prescriptive guidelines that support reliable and user-friendly digital environments, flexible course design, inclusive teaching practices, equitable access to learning resources, and ongoing reflection on pedagogical processes. These findings are interpreted through a deductive approach using the Technological, Pedagogical, and …


From Stories To Speech: Cultivating Cultural Competence And Linguistic Awareness In Future Slps, Alexis Lawton Apr 2026

From Stories To Speech: Cultivating Cultural Competence And Linguistic Awareness In Future Slps, Alexis Lawton

Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders

This manuscript reports on a pilot study examining how storytelling and linguistic diversity may cultivate cultural competence in graduate students in speech-language pathology (SLP). Through engagement with traditional folk tales, students explored the cultural significance of narratives and the linguistic features that shape them. The assignment emphasized adapting stories for diverse audiences while highlighting culturally relevant vocabulary, dialectal variations, and the complexities of language use. Facilitated discussions following student presentations prompted reflections on how these elements influence communication and understanding. Preliminary findings suggest that narrative exploration can foster both cultural and linguistic awareness, equipping students with emerging skills to provide …


Exploring The Impact Of Generative Ai On Curriculum Design And Instruction: A Study With Preservice Teachers, Lindsay A. Gold, Vanessa Winn, Jackie M. Arnold Apr 2026

Exploring The Impact Of Generative Ai On Curriculum Design And Instruction: A Study With Preservice Teachers, Lindsay A. Gold, Vanessa Winn, Jackie M. Arnold

Thomas C. Hunt Building a Research Community Day

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) is transforming education by reshaping curriculum design, individualized learning, and professional collaboration. This interpretive study examines how 70 preservice teachers engaged with GenAI through structured learning experiences focused on lesson planning, content development, and reflective practice. Participants, all fourth-year PK–Grade 5 and intervention specialist candidates at the University of Dayton, completed a co-taught seminar led by methods professors in science, social studies, language arts, and mathematics. Data sources included initial reflections on GenAI’s role in education, documentation of prompt exploration, and ongoing reflections during the seminar. Thematic analysis revealed a shift in preservice teachers’ understanding from …


What Keeps Teachers: A Systematic Review Of Induction And Early-Career Teacher Retention In Rural Schools, Bobbie Jean Mcdonough Apr 2026

What Keeps Teachers: A Systematic Review Of Induction And Early-Career Teacher Retention In Rural Schools, Bobbie Jean Mcdonough

Teacher Education, Educational Leadership & Policy ETDs

Teacher retention remains a persistent challenge in United States education, particularly in rural K–12 public schools. This systematic review synthesized empirical research on induction and early-career teacher retention in rural United States settings published between 2000 and 2025. Guided by a postpositivist framework and aligned with PRISMA 2020 standards, 56 studies met inclusion criteria following structured database searches and multi-stage screening. Findings across the included studies indicate that retention was most consistently associated with induction, mentoring, professional learning, responsive leadership, collegial relationships, and teachers’ integration into their school and community, with no single support appearing sufficient in isolation. Across research …


Copyright Information Mar 2026

Copyright Information

Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities

Publication rights to works is granted to Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, however, full copyright for works published in this journal is retained by the author(s). The author(s) may post their works online in an institutional repository, on their university departmental website, or on their own personal websites.


From The Editors..., Thomastine Sarchet-Maher Mar 2026

From The Editors..., Thomastine Sarchet-Maher

Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities

No abstract provided.


Call For Manuscripts, Thomastine Sarchet-Maher Mar 2026

Call For Manuscripts, Thomastine Sarchet-Maher

Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities

The Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities is a peer-reviewed, open access, multi-disciplinary online journal with an international focus. We publish articles that reflect the best of research and practice related to inclusive science education, including works submitted by science and special education researchers, teacher educators, and teachers. Interesting topics have included innovative curricular ideas, instructional adaptations, research-based modifications, best practices, and management strategies in science education. JSESD adopts the philosophical perspective that all students can achieve in science, and that science benefits from the full participation of all students.


The Impact Of Academic Service Learning On Community Self-Service Efficacy: An Exploratory Study Of Four Ethical Types, Niall Hegarty, John Angelidis Mar 2026

The Impact Of Academic Service Learning On Community Self-Service Efficacy: An Exploratory Study Of Four Ethical Types, Niall Hegarty, John Angelidis

Journal of Research Initiatives

Academic Service-Learning (ASL) literature reveals that most studies assume students are a homogeneous whole and thus draw overly-generalized conclusions regarding students perceived self-service efficacy as well as their disposition towards future service. To rectify this problem, this study utilizes Forsyth’s (1980) conceptual model of two dimensions, idealism and relativism, to categorize students into four categories: situationists (n=53), subjectivists (n=34), absolutists (43), and exceptionists (n=52). These students (n=182) were measured on the Community Service Self-Efficacy Scale (CSSES) before and after participating in an ASL project. The CSSES, developed by Reeb et al. (1998), measures an individual’s confidence that their service efforts …


Exploring The Lived Experiences Of Black Women In Undergraduate Stem Core Expansion Pathways, Lizzie L. Evans Martinez Alvarez Mar 2026

Exploring The Lived Experiences Of Black Women In Undergraduate Stem Core Expansion Pathways, Lizzie L. Evans Martinez Alvarez

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The use of social incongruence in the film Hidden Figures, which juxtaposed with STEM education as the most powerful in contrast with Black women as the least powerful, supported the argument for the specific problem of practice to examine the unmet need for socially and ethnically diverse student populations in U.S. STEM higher education and careers. The purpose of this hermeneutic phenomenological research study was to identify and analyze the lived experiences of Black women regarding barriers they perceive in the STEM educational and career decision-making processes, while exploring transformational pathways to STEM academic success. The study specifically analyzed …


Enhancing Science Accessibility And Engagement For Students With Visual Impairments: A Randomized Trial Of The Talking Labquest In Nigerian Schools, Sariat A. Adelakun Dr Feb 2026

Enhancing Science Accessibility And Engagement For Students With Visual Impairments: A Randomized Trial Of The Talking Labquest In Nigerian Schools, Sariat A. Adelakun Dr

Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities

Students with Blindness in Nigeria are often erroneously perceived as incapable of engaging with science at the basic education level, contributing to their low enrolment in science-related careers. Although various techniques and materials have been proposed to support students with blindness in science, many lack empirical validation. This study investigated one such approach by examining the impact of the Talking LabQuest on the interest of Students with blindness in science subjects.

A randomized controlled trial was conducted in inclusive junior secondary schools in Nigeria, involving 20 classrooms over an 18-week period. Twelve classrooms were randomly assigned to the intervention group, …


Zooming Into Success: Collaborative Virtual Spaces For Dissertation Research And Pedagogy In Higher Education, Stephanie L. Brooke Feb 2026

Zooming Into Success: Collaborative Virtual Spaces For Dissertation Research And Pedagogy In Higher Education, Stephanie L. Brooke

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

Dissertation students face numerous challenges, including narrowing down research topics, managing scholarly writing, and overcoming writer’s block. This article explores the creation and piloting of collaborative virtual spaces designed to support dissertation mentees in their academic journey. Through this project, three distinct virtual spaces emerged, each addressing specific student needs: emotional support, academic writing, and research alignment. The development of these spaces was influenced by theory as well as workplace cultural initiatives in an online program for dissertation mentoring. Creating these collaborative virtual spaces based on student needs led to transformative best practices in virtual learning environments. This method provides …


Fostering Psychological Ownership And Self-Authorship In Higher Education: Pathways To Student Engagement, Growth And Knowledge Creation, Noora Heino, Markku Ikävalko, Anssi Tarkiainen, Terhi Virkki-Hatakka Feb 2026

Fostering Psychological Ownership And Self-Authorship In Higher Education: Pathways To Student Engagement, Growth And Knowledge Creation, Noora Heino, Markku Ikävalko, Anssi Tarkiainen, Terhi Virkki-Hatakka

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

This study explores the intersection of psychological ownership (PO) and self-authorship (SA) in the context of university students’ project-based learning. It examines how students develop a sense of ownership over their course projects, ideas, and knowledge they create, and how this engagement shapes their learning, identity, and sense of self. The findings highlight the role of control and perceived idea quality in fostering psychological ownership, as well as the importance of intimate knowledge and perceived object quality in supporting self-authorship. The study underscores that when students feel connected to their ideas, their motivation, persistence, and engagement increase, especially in creativity-driven …


Multimedia-Based Interventions To Improve Science Learning Outcomes For Deaf Students At Wangsel Institute For The Deaf., Cheten Tshering Mr., Tshering Wangchuk Jan 2026

Multimedia-Based Interventions To Improve Science Learning Outcomes For Deaf Students At Wangsel Institute For The Deaf., Cheten Tshering Mr., Tshering Wangchuk

Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities

Efforts have been made to ensure inclusive learning opportunities for all students, including those from diverse backgrounds. One key strategy to enhance children’s learning and academic performance involves the thoughtful selection and application of instructional tools tailored to meet learners' specific needs. This study examines the impact of multimedia-based instruction on science achievement among deaf students at Wangsel Institute for the Deaf in Bhutan. Using a quasi-experimental design, the research compared pretest and post-test results between a control group and an experimental group. Data analysis included descriptive statistics (t-test) and ANCOVA. The findings indicated a statistically significant differences (p = …


Automating Academia: Implications Of Genai Use In Doctoral Research And Online Mentoring, Cheryl Burleigh, Andrea M. Wilson Jan 2026

Automating Academia: Implications Of Genai Use In Doctoral Research And Online Mentoring, Cheryl Burleigh, Andrea M. Wilson

Journal of Online Mentoring

This study critically examines the use of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), specifically ChatGPT, in the development of doctoral dissertation proposals, highlighting both its potential and its ethical implications. Through a content analysis of a dissertation proposal created using ChatGPT, the study investigates how GenAI supports structural organization, academic writing, and citation formatting while exposing significant concerns related to fabricated references, methodological misalignment, and diminished scholarly rigor. Although GenAI accelerates the proposal-writing process, its outputs often lack the depth, coherence, and originality expected at the doctoral level, thereby threatening the integrity of academic research. Findings reveal that GenAI-generated content may deceive …


A Model For Artificial Intelligence (Ai) Literacy Education: Reflections On Teaching Graduate-Level Teacher Education Courses, Hyunjin Jinna Kim Jan 2026

A Model For Artificial Intelligence (Ai) Literacy Education: Reflections On Teaching Graduate-Level Teacher Education Courses, Hyunjin Jinna Kim

International Journal of Transformative Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

This practice-oriented self-study examines the development of an artificial intelligence (AI) literacy education model grounded in my reflective teaching practices and journey in graduate-level teacher education courses. As AI tools become increasingly embedded in educational and everyday technologies, both teachers and learners often remain unaware of the algorithms, data ethics, and biases that shape AI-driven systems (Ghallab, 2019; Ng et al., 2022). Recognizing that many teachers and teacher candidates responsible for educating the next generation have a minimal understanding of AI tools’ limitations and the ethical risks involved in AI use, I drew on my own experiences and knowledge as …