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The Qualitative Report

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Autoethnography As A Recent Methodology In Applied Linguistics: A Methodological Review, Ufuk Keles Dr Feb 2022

Autoethnography As A Recent Methodology In Applied Linguistics: A Methodological Review, Ufuk Keles Dr

The Qualitative Report

In this methodological review, I explore how recent autoethnographic studies in the field of applied linguistics have used autoethnography as a research methodology. I examine 40 autoethnographies published in peer-reviewed journals between 2010 and 2020. The findings show that a large number of the researchers employed autoethnography as “an umbrella term” without opting for a specific type of autoethnography. Second, a great majority of the autoethnographers diverted from traditional third-person academic prose, although most of them approached their stories with an analytic lens. Third, the absence or scarcity of (auto)biographical information decreased both the evocative and analytic qualities of autoethnographic …


Efl Learners’ Attitudes Toward The Usability Of Lmoocs: A Qualitative Content Analysis, Amir Reza Rahimi Mr, Dara Tafazoli Dr Jan 2022

Efl Learners’ Attitudes Toward The Usability Of Lmoocs: A Qualitative Content Analysis, Amir Reza Rahimi Mr, Dara Tafazoli Dr

The Qualitative Report

This qualitative study aimed to explore the usability of Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) based on Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ attitudes. We used a qualitative questionnaire to collect data from 12 EFL learners from five cities in Iran. The study’s findings address a broad range of positive and negative aspects of LMOOCs. According to content analysis, learners have agreement on the positive aspects of LMOOC, including the learning environment, usability in language learning, inclusive educational technology, and parental presence. However, the learners’ attitudes were inconsistent regarding affective factors and feedback through LMOOCs. Finally, they believed …


The Motivations Of Learning Foreign Languages: A Descriptive Case Study Of Polyglots, Noprival Noprival, Zainal Rafli, Nuruddin Nuruddin Dec 2021

The Motivations Of Learning Foreign Languages: A Descriptive Case Study Of Polyglots, Noprival Noprival, Zainal Rafli, Nuruddin Nuruddin

The Qualitative Report

Polyglots are extraordinary people in terms of language ability. Therefore, it is interesting to academically explore their motivations for learning several languages. This research is novel compared to previous studies because scant extant research exists of polyglots’ motivation for learning several languages. To this end, researchers collected data from semi structured interviews obtained from five informants. The method that we used was a descriptive case study. Findings showed that the polyglots’ motivation for learning multiple foreign languages were (a) pleasure, (b) social intercourse, (c) professional purposes, and (d) academic purposes. Mostly, the previous research revealed that motivation for people learning …


Indonesian Efl Students’ Difficulties In Recognizing English Letters, Toni Indrayadi, Daflizar Daflizar, Yoki Irawan, Helty Helty Nov 2021

Indonesian Efl Students’ Difficulties In Recognizing English Letters, Toni Indrayadi, Daflizar Daflizar, Yoki Irawan, Helty Helty

The Qualitative Report

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the difficulties of Indonesian undergraduate students in recognizing English letters at one public Islamic higher education institution in Jambi Province, Indonesia as the basis for designing pronunciation teaching strategies for English lecturers. Using a qualitative methodology that attempts to investigate and understand human issues in a particular group (Harrison et al., 2017), 4 participants were interviewed. through semi-structured interview questions. The interviews were analyzed and compared along four dimensions of EFL English pronunciation mastery factors: motivation, attitude, first language pronunciation interference, and phonetic ability. The findings of this study provide evidence …


English Language Learning Through Non-Technology Games: A Case Study Of International Students At A Lithuanian University, Nagaletchimee Annamalai, Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan, Radzuwan Ab Rashid, Giedre Valunaite Oleskevicience, Vilhelmina Vaičiūnienė Oct 2021

English Language Learning Through Non-Technology Games: A Case Study Of International Students At A Lithuanian University, Nagaletchimee Annamalai, Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan, Radzuwan Ab Rashid, Giedre Valunaite Oleskevicience, Vilhelmina Vaičiūnienė

The Qualitative Report

Research on gamified language learning often involves the use of digital games. Little is known about the use of non-technology games in promoting language learning despite their accessibility. This paper aims to fill in this lacuna by providing insights into international students’ engagement in non-technology gamified English language learning in the context of a Lithuanian university. The research, which used a case study approach as its methodology, involved a total of 30 international students at a Lithuanian university together with their two instructors. They were observed for two weeks, and then interviewed by the researchers. An inductive thematic analysis approach …


Collaborative Metaphor Analysis Research Methodology: A Retrospective Self-Study, Donita Shaw, Sue Christian Parsons, Sheri Vasinda Oct 2021

Collaborative Metaphor Analysis Research Methodology: A Retrospective Self-Study, Donita Shaw, Sue Christian Parsons, Sheri Vasinda

The Qualitative Report

The purpose of this manuscript is to explicate the metaphor analysis process we employed in a recent study to make this methodology more accessible to future researchers. To explain and demystify metaphor analysis as a method, we describe in detail the three rounds of data analysis leading to findings. We seek to make transparent the messiness and thoughtfulness of the refining process as well as the methodological rigor and trustworthiness. In the discussion that follows, researchers share experiences with and resulting insights into the methodology in hopes of providing future researchers with support for their own metaphor analysis work.


Contextual Considerations: Revision Of The Wiliam And Thompson (2007) Formative Assessment Framework In The Jamaican Context, Clavia T. Williams-Mcbean Sep 2021

Contextual Considerations: Revision Of The Wiliam And Thompson (2007) Formative Assessment Framework In The Jamaican Context, Clavia T. Williams-Mcbean

The Qualitative Report

The research context should be carefully considered in qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research as it influences the efficacy of the processes and outcomes. This paper describes how contextual factors in the teaching of English in Jamaican secondary schools led to changes in the Wiliam and Thompson (2007) formative assessment framework. Data collected through interviews and observations of 32 teachers of English in the qualitative phase of a mixed-methods study reinforced the conceptualization of formative assessment as a unified framework. However, they elucidated the manifestations of Jamaica’s colonial past and the language context in Jamaican classrooms that necessitated changes to …


Mapping A Language(S) Journey In Science; From Learning Biology To Teaching Biology: An Autoethnography, Primani S. Fernando, Maria Gindidis Dr, Rebecca Cooper Dr. Aug 2021

Mapping A Language(S) Journey In Science; From Learning Biology To Teaching Biology: An Autoethnography, Primani S. Fernando, Maria Gindidis Dr, Rebecca Cooper Dr.

The Qualitative Report

This paper focuses on my experience as an English as an Additional Language (EAL) student in the context of multiple emigrations and investigates the formation of my identity as an EAL science student, science Education researcher, and science teacher. The study was guided by both my innate curiosity and the research question that sought to explore which factors significantly affected my journey of developing my English language and science knowledge based on my experience as an EAL student. The second and third authors acted as critical friends to provide a layer of reliability to the study. Within the autoethnography methodology …


Questioning Standards Of Evaluation In Educational Research: Do Educational Researchers Ventriloquize Learners’ Voices In L2 Education?, Anastasia A. Boldireff Jun 2021

Questioning Standards Of Evaluation In Educational Research: Do Educational Researchers Ventriloquize Learners’ Voices In L2 Education?, Anastasia A. Boldireff

The Qualitative Report

Learners are not stakeholders in their own education. Adhering to the quantitative gold standard in English as a Second Language (ESL) deprives the learner from having a voice in their learning process. This paper addresses voicelessness and ventriloquism in ESL, ventriloquism referring to the act of voicing the thoughts of another person, in this case the system overriding the learners’ experiences. This article addresses this problem, aligning itself with the Platinum standard while challenging the quantitative gold standard in ESL research. This paper offers resonance and semantic reliability as evaluative measures in educational research taken from literary criticism. The notion …


Malaysian Esl Teachers’ Beliefs And Practices Regarding The Use Of Music And Songs In Second Language Teaching, Daler Bokiev, Lilliati Ismail May 2021

Malaysian Esl Teachers’ Beliefs And Practices Regarding The Use Of Music And Songs In Second Language Teaching, Daler Bokiev, Lilliati Ismail

The Qualitative Report

Regardless of numerous studies supporting the effectiveness of utilizing music and songs in second language teaching, there is a remarkably limited amount of research investigating how music and songs are actually used by language teachers and the beliefs underpinning their practices, particularly in the Malaysian educational context. This qualitative study explored Malaysian ESL teachers’ beliefs and practices with regard to the use of music and songs in language instruction at different levels of education as well as factors influencing their instructional practices. The research participants consisted of five primary-level, five secondary-level and five tertiary-level ESL teachers working at public and …


“Life Is Splendid Here In The U.S.”: Intercultural Learning In Contemporary Chinese Students’ Academic Adjustment, Karolina Achirri Apr 2021

“Life Is Splendid Here In The U.S.”: Intercultural Learning In Contemporary Chinese Students’ Academic Adjustment, Karolina Achirri

The Qualitative Report

The increasing numbers of Chinese learners studying at American universities and the high mobility across borders have recently challenged prevailing stereotypes of Asians in education. While studies of Chinese students are abundant, there has been scant research on how intercultural learning unfolds in these students’ adjustment to both academic and social settings. To address this research gap, I center my case study around six of my former students from China and examine their progress at different U.S. institutions. Data from their journals were coded and analyzed qualitatively. In tracing my participants’ first semester trajectory and their strategies to adapt to …


English As A Foreign Language Teachers’ Motivation: An Activity Theory Perspective, Teymour Rahmati, Karim Sadeghi Mar 2021

English As A Foreign Language Teachers’ Motivation: An Activity Theory Perspective, Teymour Rahmati, Karim Sadeghi

The Qualitative Report

Drawing upon Activity Theory, this mixed-methods study explored L2 teachers’ (de)motivation factors, motivation change, and voice in adopting strategies that could motivate L2 teachers. Semi-structured interviews, a motivational timeline diagram, and a researcher-developed scale were used to collect data from 226 in-service L2 teachers. The interview data collected from 15 participants were analyzed through open, axial, and selective coding using MAXQDA Analytics Pro version 12.3. Individual participants’ motivational timelines were also carried over into a collective diagram to illustrate motivational trajectories. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the quantitative data collected from 211 teachers. The findings identified a number of …


Becoming Holistic Teachers And Learners: A Review Of Teaching Qualitative Research: Strategies For Engaging Emerging Scholars, Viviane Klen-Alves Mar 2021

Becoming Holistic Teachers And Learners: A Review Of Teaching Qualitative Research: Strategies For Engaging Emerging Scholars, Viviane Klen-Alves

The Qualitative Report

In this review I offer an alternative perspective on the book Teaching Qualitative Research: Strategies for Engaging Emerging Scholars by emphasizing how the authors propose a holistic approach to learning qualitative research. Departing from the point of view of an emerging scholar, this piece was written as I was transitioning from a doctoral program to the professional world, learning with the authors what it is to teach qualitative research methods while being socialized as a scholar in the doing of qualitative research.


Inequalities In Private Tutoring Of English: A Phenomenological Qualitative Study Based On Bangladeshi Higher Secondary Students, Monjurul M. Islam 8965323, Dr. Shams Hoque, Kazi Enamul Hoque Mar 2021

Inequalities In Private Tutoring Of English: A Phenomenological Qualitative Study Based On Bangladeshi Higher Secondary Students, Monjurul M. Islam 8965323, Dr. Shams Hoque, Kazi Enamul Hoque

The Qualitative Report

This phenomenological qualitative study analyzes the lived experiences of eleven Bangladeshi higher secondary students in mainstream schools to provide insight into their thoughts, feelings, beliefs, values, and assumptions of private tutoring in English (PT-E). The study also focused on PT-E that contribute to inequalities between students who have access to private tutoring and those who do not. Each participant participated in a one-to-one in-depth semi-structured interview. Using phenomenological analysis, 321 significant statements and three themes emerged. The data show that unequal practice, discrimination due to financial capability, and social psyche for PT-E that influences students to widen the negative impacts …


Washback Of An English Language Assessment System In A Malaysian University Foundation Programme, Umed Bokiev, Arshad Abd. Samad Feb 2021

Washback Of An English Language Assessment System In A Malaysian University Foundation Programme, Umed Bokiev, Arshad Abd. Samad

The Qualitative Report

Washback refers to the influence of language assessment on teaching and learning. In contrast to the wealth of studies involving external large-scale language examinations, scant research has been conducted to explore the influence of internal language assessment on instruction, particularly in the context of a university foundation programme. This qualitative study investigated the washback effects of an English language assessment system (ELAS) on the teaching and learning of English in a Malaysian university foundation programme. Apart from an in-depth analysis of official documents on the ELAS, we conducted individual semi-structured interviews with three curriculum and assessment developers, three English language …


From “Robot” To “Rejuvenating Warrior”: An Efl Learner’S Conceptual Metaphors During School Transition, Özgehan Uştuk Feb 2021

From “Robot” To “Rejuvenating Warrior”: An Efl Learner’S Conceptual Metaphors During School Transition, Özgehan Uştuk

The Qualitative Report

Drawing on conceptual metaphor theory, I investigated the school transition experience of an English as a foreign language (EFL) learner. In this narrative case study, the participant’s emotion labor was followed throughout his first semester at a high school in Turkey. Exploring narrative journals, conceptual metaphors, and interviews, I examined his dynamic emotional states. The findings revealed that school transition may entail inhibiting emotion labor for high school freshman EFL learners. Moreover, it was also shown that these emotions may force adolescent learners to reconceptualize foreign language learning with a negative perspective and develop surviving learner’s strategies that may support …


Exploring Lenses Used In Case Study Research In Literacy Over Time, Diane Barone Feb 2021

Exploring Lenses Used In Case Study Research In Literacy Over Time, Diane Barone

The Qualitative Report

This study is a case study analysis where book length case studies were aggregated for review. The review focused on the lenses that researchers used to analyze their data. The results indicated most case studies used a neutral lens where careful description of a literacy event was the goal. A few researchers moved to a critical lens of positioning theory to describe their results. Historical shifts and issues were shared that included a focus on participants and lenses and views of teachers.


Indonesian Polyglots: Lived Experiences Of Adults Learning Languages Online And Beyond The Classroom, Noprival Noprival, Zainal Rafli, Nuruddin Nuruddin, Dustin De Felice Feb 2021

Indonesian Polyglots: Lived Experiences Of Adults Learning Languages Online And Beyond The Classroom, Noprival Noprival, Zainal Rafli, Nuruddin Nuruddin, Dustin De Felice

The Qualitative Report

Learning languages independently can be more accessible in today’s online environment. Polyglots, who are speakers of more than three languages, take advantage of this online learning environment to learn even more languages in Indonesia. Using transcendental phenomenology, the researchers interviewed these adult learners on their lived experience with online platforms for learning languages not traditionally spoken or used in daily life in Indonesia. Researchers found that the polyglots reported learning many foreign languages through interactive resources, receptive resources, social media, and authentic resources. Importantly, they held positive attitudes towards online learning platforms and their experiences left them with feelings of …


Bringing Classroom And Outside World Together: Mobile Instant Messaging Via Whatsapp© For Extracurricular Writing, Şakire Erbay Çetinkaya Dec 2020

Bringing Classroom And Outside World Together: Mobile Instant Messaging Via Whatsapp© For Extracurricular Writing, Şakire Erbay Çetinkaya

The Qualitative Report

Mobile phones have a rapidly growing language teaching and learning potential due to various technologies and applications including instant messaging. However, the related literature mostly documents studies aiming at investigating their role for teaching vocabulary, pronunciation, and content, and thus there are calls to focus on other skills, including writing. Responding to these calls to solve the problem of research scarcity on other skills, I opted for a qualitative research design to investigate the pedagogical potential of WhatsApp©, perceive my students’ experiences, and evaluate the process with all strengths and weaknesses. I attempted to make contributions to the existing knowledge …


The Problem-Based Learning Approach Towards Developing Soft Skills: A Systematic Review, Sadia Deep, Ali Ahmed, Nazia Suleman, Muhammad Zahid Abbas, Uzma Naza, Hina Shaheen, Abdul Razzaq Nov 2020

The Problem-Based Learning Approach Towards Developing Soft Skills: A Systematic Review, Sadia Deep, Ali Ahmed, Nazia Suleman, Muhammad Zahid Abbas, Uzma Naza, Hina Shaheen, Abdul Razzaq

The Qualitative Report

In this paper, we review systematically the role of problem-based learning (PBL) in developing soft skills in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and other fields of studies. The Systematic Literature Review (SLR) includes the most recent empirical, review, and conceptual studies from TVET and other multiple fields of studies including medicine, humanities, and engineering between the years of 2001 and 2016 collected from four databases. A qualitative method was used to accomplish the systematic review. After the collection of articles, the selected studies were analyzed through thematic analysis. From this review, we concluded that PBL as an instructional …


A Phenomenological Study Of International Students In Us Graduate Programs Through The Lens Of Personal Growth Initiative Construct, Hannah E. Acquaye Phd, Cari Welch, Leah N. Jacobs, Arielle Ross Oct 2020

A Phenomenological Study Of International Students In Us Graduate Programs Through The Lens Of Personal Growth Initiative Construct, Hannah E. Acquaye Phd, Cari Welch, Leah N. Jacobs, Arielle Ross

The Qualitative Report

Humans, unlike other creatures, have an inherent desire to develop and grow. This desire to grow, Personal Growth Initiative, is an intentional way that humans cognitively and behaviorally navigate their environment and resources to effect change. While many researchers argue that this construct works only in individualistic cultures, others contend that the construct is applicable to collectivist cultures as well. We therefore undertook an exploration of the lived experiences of eight international students from predominantly collectivist cultures, through the lens of the Personal Growth Initiative theory. Using a phenomenological qualitative methodology, we interviewed these doctoral students via semi-structured interview …


Integrating Articles Into Teaching English To Young Learners Ii Course In Elt Department, Ayşegül Takkaç Tulgar Sep 2020

Integrating Articles Into Teaching English To Young Learners Ii Course In Elt Department, Ayşegül Takkaç Tulgar

The Qualitative Report

While relevant literature presents us different studies examining teaching English to young learners from an application and practice perspective, its theoretical side, i.e., how to instruct pre-service teachers in foreign language departments to teach the language to young learner profiles is still an area needing investigation. Conducted in English Language Teaching department at a state university in Turkey, this case study was purposed to evaluate the effectiveness of integrating articles into TEYL II course. The participants were 36 students taking TEYL II course in the third grade. The data of this case study were collected through open-ended questions and classroom …


Effective Language Teachers’ Characteristics As Perceived By English Language Private Institutes’ Administrators In Iran, Negar Yazdanipour, Mehrnoush Fakharzadeh Aug 2020

Effective Language Teachers’ Characteristics As Perceived By English Language Private Institutes’ Administrators In Iran, Negar Yazdanipour, Mehrnoush Fakharzadeh

The Qualitative Report

Recruiting wisely from the available supply of teachers is one of the instructional roles of school administrators. Their hiring and retaining decisions, among other things, can influence learners' achievements. The number of studies examining the features of effective language teachers in the eyes of administrators is limited. Therefore, the present study was designed to examine how effective language teachers are perceived by administrators of English Private Language Institutes in Iran. To this end, 27 male and female administrators were selected and interviewed. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the narrative data. The results of coding revealed several characteristics of effective …


Cultural Identity Development In Second Language Teacher Education: Toward A Negotiated Model, Hussein Meihami, Naser Rashidi Aug 2020

Cultural Identity Development In Second Language Teacher Education: Toward A Negotiated Model, Hussein Meihami, Naser Rashidi

The Qualitative Report

This is a two-phase study toward understanding the cultural identity development of the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers when they participated in cultural negotiation programs and developing a negotiated model of cultural identity development for the second language teacher education programs. To such ends, the analysis of the narratives authored by five experienced and four novice EFL teachers was done by using Wenger’s (1998) community of practice and Pennington’s (2014) TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) teacher identity model to track the cultural identity development of the EFL teachers during the cultural negotiation sessions. Then, by …


Pencil Or Keyboard? Boys’ Preferences In Writing, Jennifer L. Sze, Jane Southcott Jul 2020

Pencil Or Keyboard? Boys’ Preferences In Writing, Jennifer L. Sze, Jane Southcott

The Qualitative Report

Handwriting is an important subject in primary schools, especially in the Early Years. The importance of writing skill is now seen as a debate with the increasing demand on children to learn technology skills to help them with 21st Century learning—how to write on the keyboard effectively. The topic is important because handwriting is an essential life skill to have with or without technology. In this study, I looked at the importance of both in the context of the qualitative case studies in three schools in Melbourne, Australia. The aim of the research is to explore how do students …


Mothers Of Children With Dyslexia Share The Protection, “In-Betweenness,” And The Battle Of Living With A Reading Disability: A Feminist Autoethnography, Christine Woodcock Jun 2020

Mothers Of Children With Dyslexia Share The Protection, “In-Betweenness,” And The Battle Of Living With A Reading Disability: A Feminist Autoethnography, Christine Woodcock

The Qualitative Report

In order to shed personalized light upon some of the confusions surrounding dyslexia, this study draws upon critical disability studies to share the stories of mothers of children with dyslexia. This feminist autoethnography shares the voice of the researcher alongside interviews with 5 participants, all mothers of children with dyslexia, who were in their 40s, and ethnically and socioeconomically diverse. Using interpretative phenomenological analysis, results illustrated that the children inhabited an “in-betweenness” in their disability, in the ways dyslexia was less visual and therefore misunderstood. Likewise, the children presented a great deal of resistance in their learning, which was later …


"It Is What It Is:" Literacy Studies And Phenomenology, Jason D. Dehart Mar 2020

"It Is What It Is:" Literacy Studies And Phenomenology, Jason D. Dehart

The Qualitative Report

This investigation of the tenets of phenomenology is based on work completed using this methodology in educational studies. Specifically, the author writes about the way that phenomenology can be used when completing studies in the field of literacy. The author highlights foundational thinkers, along with major elements of methods and data collection that form the working parts of phenomenology. The author frames this article as a partially reflective account, looking at work that has been completed already, while also attempting to compose a descriptive investigation that other researchers can adopt for their own work in other fields.


Finding A Good Book To Live In: A Reflective Autoethnography On Childhood Sexual Abuse, Literature And The Epiphany, Karen D. Barley Ms Feb 2020

Finding A Good Book To Live In: A Reflective Autoethnography On Childhood Sexual Abuse, Literature And The Epiphany, Karen D. Barley Ms

The Qualitative Report

The topic of Childhood Sexual Abuse (CSA) remains a prevalent issue globally and despite the best efforts of welfare organisations, it would seem that as a society we are no closer to a resolution. CSA is a topic that is discussed in vague terms, but the real impact of CSA on the child is rarely divulged, except behind closed doors. This autoethnographic study traces the life and experiences of CSA of the author and how she used literature and writing as a coping mechanism. Using this powerful methodological tool, the author has been able to expose the implications of the …


“Ready-Ready” To Teach: The Telling Case Of A Reflective Teacher-Practitioner, Olga Gould-Yakovleva Ph.D., Mary Mcvee Ph.D., David Fronczak M.Ed. Feb 2020

“Ready-Ready” To Teach: The Telling Case Of A Reflective Teacher-Practitioner, Olga Gould-Yakovleva Ph.D., Mary Mcvee Ph.D., David Fronczak M.Ed.

The Qualitative Report

This qualitative telling case study was situated within a broader project, which explored how the research participants modified their teaching after having completed their master’s program. We investigated reflective stance of a teacher-practitioner who was a graduate of a Master’s Literacy Specialist program, which promoted reflective teaching practices using videos of students’ own teaching. The research questions were: (1) How does the participant demonstrate his use of a reflective stance with regard to teaching practices? (2) What are the modifications in teaching practices that were made by the participant after the reflective video pedagogy course used in his graduate practicum? …


Breaking The Secrets Behind The Polyglots: How Do They Acquire Many Languages?, Noprival Noprival, Zainal Rafli, Nuruddin Nuruddin Nov 2019

Breaking The Secrets Behind The Polyglots: How Do They Acquire Many Languages?, Noprival Noprival, Zainal Rafli, Nuruddin Nuruddin

The Qualitative Report

In this study, participants acquired three types of language, those are regional, national and foreign ones. The purpose of this research was to explore how Indonesian polyglots acquire several different languages. We collected data through demographic questionnaires and semi-structured interviews obtained from nine participants. Four salient themes and sub-themes that emerged in this research were (a) mastering languages through instructed learning (learning in formal educational institution and learning in informal educational institution), (b) gaining extra amounts of languages input beyond the classroom (getting more access to a national language environment and getting more access to foreign languages environment), (c) learning …