Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Educational Technology Commons™

Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Medicine and Health Sciences

Institution
Keyword
Publication Year
Publication
Publication Type

Articles 121 - 150 of 166

Full-Text Articles in Educational Technology

Automated Academic And Professional Behaviors Student Tracking Systems, Arvie Vitente, Shannon Clifford, Kevin R. Kunkel, Thomas Werner, Peyton D. Sykes Oct 2021

Automated Academic And Professional Behaviors Student Tracking Systems, Arvie Vitente, Shannon Clifford, Kevin R. Kunkel, Thomas Werner, Peyton D. Sykes

Education Collection

The purpose of this presentation is to describe a novel program faculty designed automated academic and professional behaviors student tracking system in select programs at three campuses of the University of St Augustine for Health Sciences.

The automated tracking systems streamlined and served to improve both faculty and student understanding of both academic and professional behavior performance, across three programs and three campuses at this multi campus university Early detection of performance insufficiencies was critical to changing performance and behavior.


Reinvigorating A Technical Countering Weapons Of Mass Destruction Distance Learning Graduate Certificate Program, James C. Petrosky, Gaiven Varshney, Jeremy Slagley, Sara Shaghaghi Oct 2021

Reinvigorating A Technical Countering Weapons Of Mass Destruction Distance Learning Graduate Certificate Program, James C. Petrosky, Gaiven Varshney, Jeremy Slagley, Sara Shaghaghi

Faculty Publications

Current Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction (CWMD) demands can be divided broadly into policy and science. The science of chemical, biological, and radiological/nuclear weapons informs the limits of development, production, employment, operation, detection, risk characterization, human and material protection, and medical intervention. In short, the science of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) should precede and inform the development of policy. It is to this end that the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) CWMD program was re-established, providing a technical educational option for practitioners to understand the science behind a very technically challenging subject.


Gender, Age And Staff Preparedness To Adopt Internet Tools For Research Sharing During Covid-19 In African Varsities, Valentine Joseph Owan, Michael Ekpenyong Asuquo Phd., Samuel Okpon Ekaette Ph.D., Sana Aslam, Moses Eteng Obla, Daniel Clement Agurokpon, Mercy Valentine Owan Aug 2021

Gender, Age And Staff Preparedness To Adopt Internet Tools For Research Sharing During Covid-19 In African Varsities, Valentine Joseph Owan, Michael Ekpenyong Asuquo Phd., Samuel Okpon Ekaette Ph.D., Sana Aslam, Moses Eteng Obla, Daniel Clement Agurokpon, Mercy Valentine Owan

Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)

This study assessed the partial as well as the collaborative impact of age and gender on academic staff preparedness to adopt Internet tools for research sharing in African universities during Covid-19. Although evidence abounds in the literature on gender and age as they affect relatively, scholars’ utilisation of digital tools for research communication, such studies did not examine scholars’ preparedness to adopt from a broad perspective of Africa. This study was conducted based on the argument that the preparedness of scholars may affect their future interest to utilize digital tools for research sharing. A quantitative method, based on the descriptive …


From Opportunity To Necessity: Development Of An Asynchronous Online Interprofessional Learning Experience, Kristen Mchenry, S. Alicia Williams, Florence M. Weierbach, Kate E. Beatty, Brian Cross Jul 2021

From Opportunity To Necessity: Development Of An Asynchronous Online Interprofessional Learning Experience, Kristen Mchenry, S. Alicia Williams, Florence M. Weierbach, Kate E. Beatty, Brian Cross

International Journal of Health Sciences Education

Incorporating interprofessional collaboration competencies into both undergraduate pre-licensure and graduate health science students poses challenges for academic health science centers. Certain student groups may have less opportunity to participate in interprofessional learning experiences due to demands of individual programs of study and conflicts in scheduling time with other disciplines. A group of interprofessional higher education faculty members created an innovative online asynchronous interprofessional experience with the primary goals of meeting accreditation standards for specific programs and providing interprofessional education (IPE) to students who were unable to participate in traditional face-to-face IPE experiences already established at the institution. This guide will …


A Comparison Of Two Keyboarding Instruction Methods Over 2 Years For Elementary Students, Denise K. Donica, Peter Giroux, Young Joo Kim, Sydney Branson Jul 2021

A Comparison Of Two Keyboarding Instruction Methods Over 2 Years For Elementary Students, Denise K. Donica, Peter Giroux, Young Joo Kim, Sydney Branson

The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy

Background: As computer and digital device use continues to grow in prevalence for school and work tasks, it is important for elementary-aged students to develop efficient keyboarding skills to support future academic and vocational success.

Method: A quasi-experimental pre-test and post-test study design was used to compare the effect of two different keyboarding instructional approaches on elementary students over a consecutive 2-year period. One group used Keyboarding Without Tears (KWT; N = 592) both years while the other group used free web-based activities the first year and Keyboarding Without Tears the second year (mixed methods; N = 714). …


Use Of An Innovative Simulated-Virtual Training To Improve Dental Hygiene Students’ Self-Reported Knowledge, Attitudes, And Confidence In Providing Care To Child Patients With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Kimberly Frances Cenzon Jul 2021

Use Of An Innovative Simulated-Virtual Training To Improve Dental Hygiene Students’ Self-Reported Knowledge, Attitudes, And Confidence In Providing Care To Child Patients With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Kimberly Frances Cenzon

Dental Hygiene Theses & Dissertations

Problem: As the diagnosis prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) increases, it is important for dental hygiene students to be knowledgeable and comfortable in providing care to children with ASD. However, limited clinical experiences can result in decreased confidence in the ability to interact with children diagnosed with ASD in a clinical setting. Methodology: A convenience sample of 34, second-year dental hygiene students were recruited from a 4-year entry-level Dental Hygiene program. A simulated-virtual training (SVT) module was developed as an interactive approach for educating dental hygiene students on providing care to a child patient with ASD in a clinical …


Strategies For The Improvement Of Healthcare Through Simulation, Roger Lankheet May 2021

Strategies For The Improvement Of Healthcare Through Simulation, Roger Lankheet

Dissertations

Title:Strategies for the improvement of healthcare through simulation

Background: Medical errors continue to plague the healthcare industry. The annual rates of morbidity are approximately 2.69 million (AHRQ, 2019), while mortality rates exceed 400,000 per annum (Makary & Daniel, 2016). There may be no panacea to combat these egregious rates. However, simulation of patient care events may better prepare healthcare professionals to prevent medical errors as it has been proven to be an effective learning strategy (Kirkham, 2018), enhancing skills while gaining experiential knowledge, without risk to actual patients.

Purpose: The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain a …


Trial By Fire: Impact Of Rapid Expansion Of Telemedicine In A Large Community Health System, Scott Stratton-Smith, Cole Nardi, Benjamin Snyder May 2021

Trial By Fire: Impact Of Rapid Expansion Of Telemedicine In A Large Community Health System, Scott Stratton-Smith, Cole Nardi, Benjamin Snyder

Advances in Clinical Medical Research and Healthcare Delivery

Background: Our community-based health system transitioned to a largely telehealth-based approach under the pressure of the COVID-19 pandemic. Limited implementation of telehealth had begun in 2018, but provider and patient reluctance and inadequate reimbursement prevented widespread adoption at the time. The pandemic accelerated our system’s telehealth efforts.

Results: In February 2020, video technology was rarely utilized, with the organization averaging fewer than 10 video visits per month. In April 2020, our providers used it for over 30% of all visits in our system, accounting for over 30,000 visits. Before COVID-19, fewer than 20 of our providers had performed a direct-to-patient …


The Impact Of Virtual Radiographic Positioning Simulation On 1St Year Radiography Students’ Clinical Preparedness Through The Lens Of Activity Theory: A Mixed Method Approach, Christopher Ira Wertz May 2021

The Impact Of Virtual Radiographic Positioning Simulation On 1St Year Radiography Students’ Clinical Preparedness Through The Lens Of Activity Theory: A Mixed Method Approach, Christopher Ira Wertz

Boise State University Theses and Dissertations

Radiography education programs are designed to prepare students to perform radiographic examinations and acquire diagnostic medical images of real patients in the clinical setting. Radiographic Science (RS) education, like all healthcare education, is uniquely different from education in other professional fields. Students must not only acquire the technical, cognitive learning required, but they must also master the psychomotor skills necessary to apply didactic knowledge to patients in a clinical setting. In medical imaging, when students are hesitant or lack knowledge and skills they are prone to produce images with decreased quality or expose patients to unnecessarily high amounts of radiation. …


Exploring Student Engagement With A Nanotechnology Module For Middle School Developed Using The Model Of Educational Reconstruction, Martyna Laszcz May 2021

Exploring Student Engagement With A Nanotechnology Module For Middle School Developed Using The Model Of Educational Reconstruction, Martyna Laszcz

Graduate Masters Theses

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (NST) is a booming multi-disciplinary field, with significant implications towards scientific and technological innovation. The growing reach of NST has created a demand for a skilled and scientifically literate workforce. However, NST is typically inaccessible outside of specialized contexts. Therefore, there is a need for bringing NST into the K-12 classroom.

In this study, we explored the use of technology-based NST modules to introduce middle and high school students to the field, wherein students unpacked an NST tool, the atomic force microscope (AFM), to learn about basic NST-related science concepts. The module created for this study was …


The Benefit Of A Blended Education Approach In Patient Access Representative (Par) Training: Didactic And Simulation, Daryl Anildes-Gumban Msn, Rn, James Cavalier, Jr. Phd, Rn, Jennifer Mills Msn, Rn, Judie Nelson, Caranza Johnson, Tracy Renick, Diane Bodurka Apr 2021

The Benefit Of A Blended Education Approach In Patient Access Representative (Par) Training: Didactic And Simulation, Daryl Anildes-Gumban Msn, Rn, James Cavalier, Jr. Phd, Rn, Jennifer Mills Msn, Rn, Judie Nelson, Caranza Johnson, Tracy Renick, Diane Bodurka

Education Week Poster Showcase 2021

Division of Education and Training


Closing The Gap: A Course Design To Prevent Social Media Mishaps In The Clinical Setting, Stacy Gabbard Apr 2021

Closing The Gap: A Course Design To Prevent Social Media Mishaps In The Clinical Setting, Stacy Gabbard

Morehead State Theses and Dissertations

A capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in the Ernst and Sara Lane Volgenau College of Education at Morehead State University by Stacy Gabbard on April 8, 2021


Meeting Minutes, Wku Council Of Academic Deans Feb 2021

Meeting Minutes, Wku Council Of Academic Deans

Council of Academic Deans

Meeting regarding graduate fair, commencement, enrollment, accreditation, zoom connect classroom and fifth week assessment.


Pandemic Sparks Innovation In Virtual Care Education, Bonnie L. Rogulj Feb 2021

Pandemic Sparks Innovation In Virtual Care Education, Bonnie L. Rogulj

Physical Therapy Collection

As a result of COVID-19 the physical therapy profession has required increased use of technology to manage patients and clients Telerehabilitation has allowed PTs to provide cost-effective services to patients and clients at a distance. This article describes an effort to create a series of interactive virtual activities related to the cervical spine and upper extremities for novice students enrolled in the Applied Anatomy course (see example below). It also explores important considerations for educators when utilizing technology to teach physical therapy telemedicine skills.


Uptodate Use As A Predictor Of Medical Student Success, Connor Buechler, Kurt Wendland, Jason Booza, Diane Levine Jan 2021

Uptodate Use As A Predictor Of Medical Student Success, Connor Buechler, Kurt Wendland, Jason Booza, Diane Levine

Medical Student Research Symposium

Background

Both practicing physicians and student learners prioritize speed of access and ease of use over most other criteria in choosing how to look up clinical information, with electronic resources far outpacing books for these reasons. While there are many variations of electronic reference materials available, UpToDate is one of, if not the most, frequently referenced clinical knowledge resources. It is professionally written and edited by practicing clinicians with frequent updates as new information or studies become available to inform care, allowing the learner to answer clinical questions rapidly, correctly, and fully. Given its proven popularity, the usefulness of UpToDate …


Raw And Pure Education In The Society, Iwasan D. Kejawa Jan 2021

Raw And Pure Education In The Society, Iwasan D. Kejawa

Department of Educational Administration: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

What does education mean to individuals in the world today? Education is a way one can attain or improve his or her ability to lead and survive in the society of ours. Without educational training of the mind, it may be impossible to realize the importance of adaptability of living in the environment. Without education, It may also be difficult to embellish the use of both the mental and physical attributes possessed by individual beings.

What really is education? Education is the training of the mind to perform desire functions or to perpetuate the modality of obtaining an end or …


Flop To Flip: Integrating Technology And Team-Based Learning To Improve Student Engagement, Diana A. Veneri, Elizabeth M. Mongillo Jan 2021

Flop To Flip: Integrating Technology And Team-Based Learning To Improve Student Engagement, Diana A. Veneri, Elizabeth M. Mongillo

Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice

Purpose: The first attempt to develop and instruct a new course in evidence-based practice in a physical therapy curriculum proved problematic. The purpose of this paper is to describe the method of revising this traditionally taught course using a combination of flipping the classroom, team-based learning, and technology. Methods: Working with an Instructional Design Specialist, a weekly online preparatory module was created for each content topic using a variety of multimedia learning provisions including micro learning videos (PowerPoint with voiceover), transcript of the PowerPoint, a list of vocabulary words, reading, Quizlet, Flipgrids and Concept Checks. Each week’s module was introduced …


Virtual Objective Structured Clinical Examinations As A Framework For Active Learning And Assessment: A Retrospective Analysis Of Dental Hygiene Student And Instructor Perceptions, Kellie Whitcomb Jan 2021

Virtual Objective Structured Clinical Examinations As A Framework For Active Learning And Assessment: A Retrospective Analysis Of Dental Hygiene Student And Instructor Perceptions, Kellie Whitcomb

EWU Masters Thesis Collection

Purpose: Millennials have unique needs as learners and have come to expect the use of technology in education. Utilizing technology to implement formative virtual objective structured clinical examinations (vOSCEs) may engage millennial students due to the non-linear nature and active pedagogy while also preparing them for provisional or full licensing exams. The purpose of this study was to determine what implications there may be for future formative vOSCE use in dental hygiene programs by assessing dental hygiene student and clinic faculty experience with vOSCEs.

Methods: Research was from a qualitative perspective. The design was a retrospective phenomenological cohort study utilizing …


Use Of A Webinar To Assess Fieldwork Educator Readiness To Provide Occupational Therapy Services And Supervise Students Through Telehealth, Jennifer A. Calabrese, Jeanne M. Coviello, Anna Y. Grasso, Kelly A. Otchet, Erica A. Pugh, Mary Beth Thomas, Bridget Trivinia Jan 2021

Use Of A Webinar To Assess Fieldwork Educator Readiness To Provide Occupational Therapy Services And Supervise Students Through Telehealth, Jennifer A. Calabrese, Jeanne M. Coviello, Anna Y. Grasso, Kelly A. Otchet, Erica A. Pugh, Mary Beth Thomas, Bridget Trivinia

Journal of Occupational Therapy Education

At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the spring of 2020, many school-based occupational therapy practitioners experienced intensified job demands including a rapid shift to telehealth service delivery. Additionally, academic fieldwork coordinators sought to find effective methods of delivering fieldwork education and supporting those involved, including the occupational therapy fieldwork educators and students, as they navigated the new context imposed by the pandemic. A study was completed using a synchronous webinar format and post-webinar survey to explore school-based occupational therapy practitioners’ perceptions of readiness to provide occupational therapy services through telehealth, the perception of preparedness of potential, current, and …


Rapid Transition Of A Technical Course From Face-To-Face To Online, Swapna Gottipatti, Venky Shankaraman Jan 2021

Rapid Transition Of A Technical Course From Face-To-Face To Online, Swapna Gottipatti, Venky Shankaraman

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Just like most universities around the world, the senior management at Singapore Management University decided to move all courses to a virtual, online, synchronous mode, giving instructors a very short notice period—one week—to make this transition. In this paper, we describe the challenges, practical solutions adopted, and the lessons learnt in rapidly transitioning a face-to-face Master’s degree course in Text Analytics and Applications into a virtual, online, course format that could deliver a quality learning experience.


Perception Of Students And Insructors On The Impacts Of Gamification On Motivation And Teamwork Among Pharmacy Students By Using Kahoot!, Nadia Inez Junazli Jan 2021

Perception Of Students And Insructors On The Impacts Of Gamification On Motivation And Teamwork Among Pharmacy Students By Using Kahoot!, Nadia Inez Junazli

Student Works (2020-2029)

There is an increased used of game-based student response system (GSRS) such as Quizziz and Kahoot! in Malaysian Pharmacy Schools where it has become a tool to increase motivation, engagement and facilitate collaborative learning. Although it is widely used in pharmacy schools across government and private Universities in Malaysia, there is little evidence to understand pharmacy students and their instructor’s perceptions and experiences on using Kahoot! in pharmacy subjects such as pharmaceutics and pharmacology. This qualitative study adopted a phenomenological approach to evaluate students’ and instructors’ experiences through in-depth interview sessions(N=11) to understand their change of attitude, experience, and perception …


Stem Education In College: An Analysis Of Stakeholders’ Recent Challenges And Potential Solutions, Santanu De, Georgina Arguello Nov 2020

Stem Education In College: An Analysis Of Stakeholders’ Recent Challenges And Potential Solutions, Santanu De, Georgina Arguello

FDLA Journal

A vast majority of academic disciplines and curricula in the college center around Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), which are critical to developing the skills necessary for a global workforce. Rapid changes in pedagogical setups, educational modes, and advances in instructional technology entail diverse challenges for key stakeholders (i.e. students, faculty, and the organizations). This paper highlights the most relevant challenges and potential solutions in STEM higher education at the college level, reported in the last decade. The holistic analysis combining the three stakeholders’ perspectives would help elucidate significant contemporary aspects impacting the fields. The goal is to further …


Assessing The Use Of Student-Developed Clerkship Guides For Improving Clerkship Expectations And Experiences: An App-Based Approach., Jose Chavez, Lauren Muenchow, Matthew Hidalgo, Jiyun Lim, Jose Campo Maldonado, Lori Berry, Michael Machiorlatti Nov 2020

Assessing The Use Of Student-Developed Clerkship Guides For Improving Clerkship Expectations And Experiences: An App-Based Approach., Jose Chavez, Lauren Muenchow, Matthew Hidalgo, Jiyun Lim, Jose Campo Maldonado, Lori Berry, Michael Machiorlatti

MEDI 9331 Scholarly Activities Clinical Years

Background: The transition for medical students from pre-clinical education to the clinical learning environment introduces different expectations, methods of evaluation, and new working conditions. A mobile-friendly web application with clerkship specific information was developed to assess whether clinical preparedness increased among third-year medical students at transitioning to their clinical curriculum.

Objectives: To determine whether medical students’ clinical preparedness increased as they transitioned into clinical rotations by using a mobile-friendly web application that contained information and advice shared by senior medical students that had already completely their rotations.

Methods: Third-year medical students at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley School …


The Impact Of High-Fidelity Simulation On Nursing Student’S Flexible And Reflective Thinking In Higher Education, Hungwei Tseng, Lori Hill Oct 2020

The Impact Of High-Fidelity Simulation On Nursing Student’S Flexible And Reflective Thinking In Higher Education, Hungwei Tseng, Lori Hill

Higher Learning Research Communications

This study evaluated the effect of high-fidelity simulation with both mannequins and live actors on flexible and reflective thinking of nursing students. Students enrolled in an undergraduate nursing program were recruited to participate in this study. Ninety students, all female, completed both pre- and post-surveys. The researchers conducted a paired samples t-test to determine if there is a statistically significant difference in students’ level of flexible thinking before and after they experienced the high-fidelity simulation. Moreover, we conducted multivariate correlational analysis to examine the relationships between flexible thinking and reflective thinking. In general, statistical results in this study provide …


Simulation-Based Training Improves Student Assessment Of Oral Feeding Skills In Preterm Infants, Courtney K. Broadfoot, Julie M. Estis Oct 2020

Simulation-Based Training Improves Student Assessment Of Oral Feeding Skills In Preterm Infants, Courtney K. Broadfoot, Julie M. Estis

Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders

Advancements in medical technology have contributed to increased rates of preterm birth. Prematurity places infants at high risk for feeding difficulties, however. Early identification and assessment of preterm infant dysphagia is critical to maximize nutrition and hydration, feeding safety, and growth and development. The purpose of this study was to assess the ability of a simulation-based training toolto increase non-health care and entry-level clinical student sensitivity to signs of feeding distress in preterm infants. Data were collected from 60 students (20 masters-level Speech-Language Pathology, 20 undergraduate nursing, 20 undergraduate non-health care) in a pre-test/post-test design. All participants completed a …


Informing The Creation Of A Financial Literacy Tool For Cal Poly Students, Kelly Michelle Carroll Jun 2020

Informing The Creation Of A Financial Literacy Tool For Cal Poly Students, Kelly Michelle Carroll

Communication Studies

This research project examines the wants, needs, and desires of Cal Poly students to inform the creation of a financial literacy tool (tentatively named “MoneySmart”) to be created by another student. The methodologies used to gauge these metrics were a literature review and questionnaire. The literature review aids in understanding research regarding the current state of student financial literacy in the United States, including student attitudes toward the topic. Subsequent findings were used to create the questionnaire, which inquired about students’ financial stress, confidence in their abilities to manage their personal finances, specific interests for the design and contents of …


A Shift In Reality: Virtual And Augmented Systems In Higher And Medical Education, Brian Meyer Feb 2020

A Shift In Reality: Virtual And Augmented Systems In Higher And Medical Education, Brian Meyer

Current Issues in Emerging eLearning

Virtual and augmented technologies provide a seamless solution for merging traditional, theoretical learning with practical application in context. Unlike traditional teaching pedagogies, in which lessons are restricted in terms of the use of additional apparatus, pedagogies that involve the use of virtual and augmented reality technologies enable educators to build upon taught concepts to demonstrate the application of those concepts in practice, and allow educators to generate multiple atypical scenarios in order to build competence in practical fields of endeavour. In medical education, virtual and augmented reality tools provide an especially important opportunity for preparation before treating patients in actual …


Integrating Interactive, Adaptive Technology To Teach First Year Physician Assistant Students, Zilola Khashimova Feb 2020

Integrating Interactive, Adaptive Technology To Teach First Year Physician Assistant Students, Zilola Khashimova

Physician Assistant Studies | Faculty Conference Presentations

Idea: Integrate adaptive technology into Anatomy curriculum. Need: Physician assistant departments do not have the extensive resources and instruction time to teach anatomy like medical schools. With faster computers and large data storage on the cloud, interactive technology has become quite useful and affordable. Interactive technology is algorithm-based systems that take advantage of advanced mathematical formulas and machine learning concepts to adapt specifically to individual learners. At its core, such systems are intended to identify what a student does and doesn’t understand, identify and provide content that will help the student learn it, assess again, help again, etc., until some …


Can The Augmented Web-Based Applicant Experience Replace An Audition Rotation?, Joshua J. Goldman, Vladislav Pavlovich Zhitny, Noama Iftekhar, Chad M. Teven, Richard Baynosa Jan 2020

Can The Augmented Web-Based Applicant Experience Replace An Audition Rotation?, Joshua J. Goldman, Vladislav Pavlovich Zhitny, Noama Iftekhar, Chad M. Teven, Richard Baynosa

School of Medicine Faculty Research

No abstract provided.


Achieving Dentin Conservation Using Dynamic Navigation Technology For Locating Calcified Canals, Madison W. Saunders Jan 2020

Achieving Dentin Conservation Using Dynamic Navigation Technology For Locating Calcified Canals, Madison W. Saunders

Theses and Dissertations

Purpose: Pulp canal obliteration (PCO) is a common sequela of dental trauma, caries, restorations and vital pulp therapy procedures. Despite the application of high magnification and CBCT imaging, access cavity preparation for such cases is prone to procedural errors that may lead to substantial loss of dentin structure thereby reducing the long-term prognosis. This study aimed to achieve dentin conservation using a novel computer assisted dynamic navigation system (Navident) in comparison to freehand access preparation for locating calcified canals.

Methods: Forty maxillary and mandibular central incisors (tooth #9 and tooth #25) were 3-D printed to simulate PCO. They were randomly …