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2026

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Articles 121 - 150 of 249

Full-Text Articles in Educational Psychology

Teaching Social Marketing Concepts Through Prosocial Behavior Lenses, Bela Florenthal Apr 2026

Teaching Social Marketing Concepts Through Prosocial Behavior Lenses, Bela Florenthal

Atlantic Marketing Association Proceedings

No abstract provided.


Leveraging Artificial Intelligence For Transformative Education: Challenges And Recommendations, Papia Bawa Apr 2026

Leveraging Artificial Intelligence For Transformative Education: Challenges And Recommendations, Papia Bawa

Journal of Research Initiatives

The sheer force with which GPT models are inundating business, education and economic fields speaks to its ability to not only transform the ways in which we interact and act but also disrupt these ways. This systematic literature review applies the PSALSAR method to synthesize findings from 72 articles on AI applications in education, emphasizing its transformative potential across various domains. AI is transforming personalized learning by customizing content and feedback to individual needs, addressing challenges like data privacy and ethical concerns. It enhances administrative efficiency through automation and data-driven decision-making, improving institutional performance while managing biases and maintaining human …


Motivational Systems In Education That Encourage Academic Achievement & Student Leadership, Hannah A. Lockhart, Angela Elsass Apr 2026

Motivational Systems In Education That Encourage Academic Achievement & Student Leadership, Hannah A. Lockhart, Angela Elsass

2026 Honors Symposium

This research examines how school-based motivational systems influence academic achievement, student engagement, and leadership development in K–12 educational settings. Grounded in contemporary motivational theory, the project explores motivation as a multidimensional construct shaped by autonomy, competence, relatedness, and belonging. Using an expanded review of literature as the primary methodological framework, the research synthesized 97 scholarly sources retrieved through multiple academic databases, including the University of Arkansas Libraries system, and integrated qualitative insight from a semi-structured professional interview with educator Ron Clark. Findings suggest that intentionally designed motivational systems, including schoolwide frameworks that foster belonging, recognition, and student agency, have a …


The Big Ideas Of Motivation Toolkit, Kevin Pugh, Cassendra Bergstrom Apr 2026

The Big Ideas Of Motivation Toolkit, Kevin Pugh, Cassendra Bergstrom

Toolkits

Teaching Coach Pugh has synthesized the Big Ideas of Motivation into the following infographics, along with associated references. A lot of this information can also be found in a vlog series on Dr. Pugh's youtube channel here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QhP5k7eOEo&list=PLi9kxIQ_OxFzZCbDiWaYYImmi35MLZ2hu


Unique Undergraduate Experiences And Their Impact On Postgraduate Plans For St. Mary's University Psychology Majors, Angelina Robledo, Zoe Lozano, Jose Ignacio Guerrero Donoso Apr 2026

Unique Undergraduate Experiences And Their Impact On Postgraduate Plans For St. Mary's University Psychology Majors, Angelina Robledo, Zoe Lozano, Jose Ignacio Guerrero Donoso

Posters - 2026

  • The amount of research opportunities a student has available is linked to higher post graduate student success rate (Stoloff et al., 2015).
  • The quality of different research experiences also matter (Love et al., 2007). Positive undergraduate experiences lead to higher levels of self-efficacy in undergraduate students.
  • Students' soft skills are improved throughout various classroom activities, preparing them for post graduate opportunities (Marsh et al., 2016).
  • Wayment and Dickinson (2008) found that students who participated in undergraduate research were more likely to get accepted to graduate school.
  • Hypotheses
    • Attending sophomore retreat can reassure areas of interest for psychology undergraduates, which may …


Does Age And Reading Activity Predict Children’S Engagement In Grandparent–Grandchild Zoom Sessions?, Breanne E. Dunn Apr 2026

Does Age And Reading Activity Predict Children’S Engagement In Grandparent–Grandchild Zoom Sessions?, Breanne E. Dunn

Honors Thesis

As the digital world continues to advance, interactions that once took place in person are increasingly occurring online. Although a substantial body of research has documented the benefits of shared reading for children under six, far less is known about how these experiences and reading development unfolds in digital contexts. This study examines how structured book reading during video chat supports joint visual attention (JVA; sharing attention with another person on an object) between children (18 months to 6 years old) and their remote grandparents. The proportion of successful grandparent-initiated JVA bids throughout three different activity conditions, baseline (control), matching …


1st Place Research Paper: "Gaps In The Academy: Evaluating Pre-Service Criminal Justice Training For Interactions With Vulnerable Populations", Rowan Eiselman Apr 2026

1st Place Research Paper: "Gaps In The Academy: Evaluating Pre-Service Criminal Justice Training For Interactions With Vulnerable Populations", Rowan Eiselman

Kevin and Tam Ross Undergraduate Research Prize

This research investigates pre-service training for law enforcement officers (LEOs), specifically examining how current educational practices prepare them to interact with vulnerable populations, including victims, suspects, and individuals in crisis. The quality of this training is critical, as it directly shapes officer behavior, decision-making, and ethical conduct in the field (Mier, 2018). Amid heightened public scrutiny of police practices and calls for reform, the effectiveness of law enforcement education has become a central concern.

The significance of this topic is underscored by extensive research on training methodologies such as procedural justice and de-escalation, which aim to improve police-community relations and …


Conservation Communication In Web 2.0: A Mixed Methods Analysis Of Alveus Sanctuary's Strategies On Twitch.Tv, Hope Denison Apr 2026

Conservation Communication In Web 2.0: A Mixed Methods Analysis Of Alveus Sanctuary's Strategies On Twitch.Tv, Hope Denison

Senior Theses

This thesis examines how environmental creators can effectively transmit conservation messages in the evolving Web 2.0 media environment. The case of Alveus Sanctuary, a virtual sanctuary and education center on Twitch.TV, is used to explore the strategies currently used to engage audiences and raise ecological awareness online. Thematic analysis of interviews with the sanctuary’s founder revealed that Alveus combines traditional environmental education with an influencer business model to engage online audiences, leveraging parasocial behavior, interactivity, and collaboration to garner support. A quantitative content analysis of social media posts revealed that these strategies effectively induce parasocial engagement in online spaces. These …


Relative Contribution Of Morphological Awareness Skills In Predicting Reading Comprehension And Vocabulary Among Fourth-Grade Pupils With Learning Disabilities In Sultante Of Oman, Fatma. M. Alkaaf, Mahmoud Emam, Mohammed S. Bakry Apr 2026

Relative Contribution Of Morphological Awareness Skills In Predicting Reading Comprehension And Vocabulary Among Fourth-Grade Pupils With Learning Disabilities In Sultante Of Oman, Fatma. M. Alkaaf, Mahmoud Emam, Mohammed S. Bakry

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

The study aimed to evaluate the relative contribution of morphological awareness skills in predicting reading comprehension and reading vocabulary in a sample of fourth-grade pupils with learning disabilities (LD), specifically dyslexia. The study sample consisted of 83 pupils randomly selected from schools in the Sultanate of Oman. The study used three standardized instruments to measure morphological awareness (MA): morphological decomposition analysis (MDA), morphological decomposition production (MDP), and reading comprehension test (RCT) with its two scales: sentence comprehension (SC) and text comprehension (TC) and the reading vocabulary test (RVT). The findings revealed with pearson correlation and stepwise multiple linear regression, a …


The Effectiveness Of The Educational Program “Istedamah” (Sustainability) Based On Green School Principles In Shaping Basic Education Students’ Perceptions Of Sustainable Development Dimensions And Their Practices In Achieving Carbon Neutrality In The School Environment In The Sultanate Of Oman, Huda Mubarak Al Dayri, Abdullah. K. Ambusaidi Apr 2026

The Effectiveness Of The Educational Program “Istedamah” (Sustainability) Based On Green School Principles In Shaping Basic Education Students’ Perceptions Of Sustainable Development Dimensions And Their Practices In Achieving Carbon Neutrality In The School Environment In The Sultanate Of Oman, Huda Mubarak Al Dayri, Abdullah. K. Ambusaidi

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

The study aimed to identify the effectiveness of “ Istedamah” educational programme, which is based on green school principals, in promoting the perceptions of sustainable development dimensions and their practices related carbon neutrality among basic education students in the Sultanate of Oman. The study used quasi-experimental approach based on one group pre- and post -test design. The sample consisted of 106 male and female students selected randomly from schools that apply green school project. Two tools were used to gather data: A scale of students’ perceptions of the dimensions of sustainable development, (consisted of 26 statements) and practices for achieving …


The Effectiveness Of A Story-Based Counseling Program In Enhancing Spiritual Intelligence Skills Among First-Grade Students In The Sultanate Of Oman, Maryam Said Sulaiman Ai Siyabi, Amina Benkouider Samad, Sherif Al-Saudi Apr 2026

The Effectiveness Of A Story-Based Counseling Program In Enhancing Spiritual Intelligence Skills Among First-Grade Students In The Sultanate Of Oman, Maryam Said Sulaiman Ai Siyabi, Amina Benkouider Samad, Sherif Al-Saudi

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a story-based counseling program in developing spiritual intelligence skills among first-grade students in the Sultanate of Oman. The researchers adopted a quasi-experimental approach and applied tools including a spiritual intelligence scale and a specially designed counseling program to achieve the study’s objectives. The study sample consisted of 48 male and female students from Ibra Basic Education School, randomly divided into two groups: an experimental group (22 students) who received the counseling program consisting of 12 sessions over six weeks, and a control group (26 students) who did not receive any intervention. The …


The Effectiveness Of The Fishbowl Strategy Int Eaching Mathematics On Developing Creative Thinking For Fourth Grade Students In Basic Education In Dhofar Governorate, Sabah Abdalla Elsayed, Najawa Said Al-Hatmi Apr 2026

The Effectiveness Of The Fishbowl Strategy Int Eaching Mathematics On Developing Creative Thinking For Fourth Grade Students In Basic Education In Dhofar Governorate, Sabah Abdalla Elsayed, Najawa Said Al-Hatmi

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

The fishbowl technique improves the sharing of ideas in a structured conversational environment, adding depth and excitement to creative thought; it further promotes active observation and a secure discussion atmosphere, fostering the development of innovative solutions among learners, therefore; the current research aims to investigate the effectiveness of the Fishbowl strategy as one of the active learning strategies in teaching mathematics to develop creative thinking among fourth-grade students in basic education in Dhofar Governorate. An experimental approach with a quasi-experimental design was applied, where a sample consisting of two groups was selected: an experimental group (which studied using the Fishbowl …


Preface, Said Sulaiman Al Dhafri, Sumaira A. Chowdhury Apr 2026

Preface, Said Sulaiman Al Dhafri, Sumaira A. Chowdhury

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

No abstract provided.


Bullying Coping Strategies Among Students In Grades (9-11) Considering Social Support, The Mediating Role Of Emotional Regulation, And Certain Demographic And Contextual Variables: A Mixed-Method As Perspectives By Students And Counselors, Fahima Hamed Alsaidi Apr 2026

Bullying Coping Strategies Among Students In Grades (9-11) Considering Social Support, The Mediating Role Of Emotional Regulation, And Certain Demographic And Contextual Variables: A Mixed-Method As Perspectives By Students And Counselors, Fahima Hamed Alsaidi

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

The study had an interpretive aim, focusing on understanding students’ bullying coping strategies used by students in grades 9-11 in Sultanate of Oman. It also explored differences in bullying coping strategies according to demographic and contextual variables. Moreover, it analyzed the causal relationships between coping-bullying strategies, social support, and emotion regulation. The quantitative findings were interpreted through counselor’s perspectives. The study used a mixed method with an interpretive sequential design. It involved (2,581) male and female students from grades 9-11 in the quantitative phase and (10) social and psychological specialists in the qualitative phase. Instruments included three scales (Social Support, …


Digital Citizenship Among Middle School Students In Oman: A Study Considering Various Variables, Suad Saleh Al Wahaibi, Khalfan Zahran Al-Hijji, Raja Maznah Raja Husain Apr 2026

Digital Citizenship Among Middle School Students In Oman: A Study Considering Various Variables, Suad Saleh Al Wahaibi, Khalfan Zahran Al-Hijji, Raja Maznah Raja Husain

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

This study examined the level of digital citizenship (DC) among grade 10 students in Oman with respect to gender, internet usage duration, and exposure to online threats. A total of 1,022 students participated during the 2022/2023 academic year. The study employed a questionnaire constructed on Ribble’s (2015) Respect, Educate, and Protect (REP) model and applied a random cluster sampling technique. Results revealed that students’ DC level was moderate overall. No statistically significant difference was found between male and female students, while there were significant differences in DC scores in terms of facing online threats and in terms of internet usage …


The Digital Dilemma: Social Media’S Influence On Children’S Well-Being In Developing Nations: A Systematic Literature Review, Hilal Hamed Al Busaidi, Ayman Al Shukri, Moosa Al Shukaili, Yahya Al Niyadi, Adil H Al Kindi Apr 2026

The Digital Dilemma: Social Media’S Influence On Children’S Well-Being In Developing Nations: A Systematic Literature Review, Hilal Hamed Al Busaidi, Ayman Al Shukri, Moosa Al Shukaili, Yahya Al Niyadi, Adil H Al Kindi

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of teenagers and children, particularly in developing countries. Though it opens avenues for communication and expression, it also plays a serious role in mental health. This paper conducts a systematic literature review (SLR) of published studies from 2015 to 2025, utilizing the databases of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, to assess the impact of social networking sites on the mental health of children’s populations in low- and middle-income countries. The review identifies three concern areas: cyberbullying, increased anxiety and depression rates, and socioeconomic factors’ effects. Literature suggests that adolescents …


The Effectiveness Of A Group Counseling Program Based On Acceptance And Commitment Therapy In Reducing The Level Of Nomophobia Among Ninth Grade Female Students In Muscat Governorate, Samya Hamed Al Harthi, Manal Khasib Al Fazari, Amal Mohamed Al Hadabi Apr 2026

The Effectiveness Of A Group Counseling Program Based On Acceptance And Commitment Therapy In Reducing The Level Of Nomophobia Among Ninth Grade Female Students In Muscat Governorate, Samya Hamed Al Harthi, Manal Khasib Al Fazari, Amal Mohamed Al Hadabi

Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies

The study aimed to verify the effectiveness of a group counselling program based on acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) in reducing the level of nomophobia among ninth-grade female students in Muscat Governorate. To reach the objectives of the study, the interactive electronic nomophobia scale and the group counselling program based on acceptance and commitment therapy were used. The program consisted of twelve counselling sessions. The study followed the quasi-experimental approach with control and experimental groups, with pre- and post-test and a follow-up test. The study sample consisted of female students, distributed equally into two control and experimental groups. The results …


Being Compassionate Helps Improve College Students’ Perceived Well-Being. The Mediating Role Of Cognitive Flexibility And Perceived Anxiety, Saurabh Singh, Sarath Nonis Apr 2026

Being Compassionate Helps Improve College Students’ Perceived Well-Being. The Mediating Role Of Cognitive Flexibility And Perceived Anxiety, Saurabh Singh, Sarath Nonis

AMTP Proceedings 2026

Perceived well-being of college students is crucial to the success of students and institutions of higher education alike. Through this study we assert that promoting compassion among college students can improve their perceived well-being. Furthermore, the effect is mediated by cognitive flexibility and anxiety felt by students. The study has theoretical and managerial implications. The results can guide educators and university personnel to better craft curriculum and university communication.


What Keeps Teachers: A Systematic Review Of Induction And Early-Career Teacher Retention In Rural Schools, Bobbie Jean Mcdonough Apr 2026

What Keeps Teachers: A Systematic Review Of Induction And Early-Career Teacher Retention In Rural Schools, Bobbie Jean Mcdonough

Teacher Education, Educational Leadership & Policy ETDs

Teacher retention remains a persistent challenge in United States education, particularly in rural K–12 public schools. This systematic review synthesized empirical research on induction and early-career teacher retention in rural United States settings published between 2000 and 2025. Guided by a postpositivist framework and aligned with PRISMA 2020 standards, 56 studies met inclusion criteria following structured database searches and multi-stage screening. Findings across the included studies indicate that retention was most consistently associated with induction, mentoring, professional learning, responsive leadership, collegial relationships, and teachers’ integration into their school and community, with no single support appearing sufficient in isolation. Across research …


The Lived Experiences Of Master's Level Counselors In Professional Counseling Association Leadership, Catalina R. Kraft Apr 2026

The Lived Experiences Of Master's Level Counselors In Professional Counseling Association Leadership, Catalina R. Kraft

Counseling & Human Services Theses & Dissertations

Leadership and advocacy are essential for all counselors (Lewis, 2022; McKibben, 2016; Paradise et al., 2010; Sweeney, 2022). However, within research and professional counseling associations, there appears to be a bias in which counselor educators are the expected, default leaders within the counseling profession (Burns, 2015; Kleist, 2018; Speciale & Goodrich, 2020). While counselor educators may have experience as counselors, they primarily work in academia, so their experiences do not authentically represent the needs of professional counselors. Counseling leaders need to represent and understand the people they serve: counselors. Therefore, this study sought to understand the lived experiences of master’s …


Profiles Of Science Students’ Achievement Emotions: An Exploration Of Motivational Antecedents And Persistence Outcomes Over Time, Arianna White-Levatich Apr 2026

Profiles Of Science Students’ Achievement Emotions: An Exploration Of Motivational Antecedents And Persistence Outcomes Over Time, Arianna White-Levatich

Educational Leadership & Workforce Development Theses & Dissertations

This is a longitudinal study focused on the importance of students’ beliefs and emotions for their persistence in science majors. The primary goals of this study are threefold. First, to examine how undergraduate science students’ academic achievement emotions combine into profiles across two time points in the context of introductory Chemistry and Biology Courses. Second, to examine how students’ beliefs and perceptions of belonging relate to profile membership and to the likelihood that students will transition between profiles of emotions over time. Third, to evaluate how emotion profile membership and transition are related to students’ intentions to pursue science and …


The Role Of Autonomy And Motivation On Teacher Retention: A Mixed Methods Study, Jordan Overton Apr 2026

The Role Of Autonomy And Motivation On Teacher Retention: A Mixed Methods Study, Jordan Overton

STEMPS Theses & Dissertations

Teacher retention remains a persistent concern in the United States, with nearly 13% of classrooms unfilled by licensed teachers. Grounded in self-determination theory and basic psychological needs theory, this mixed methods sequential explanatory study examined the relationship between teacher autonomy, motivation, and intentions to leave, while also exploring the contextual factors that shaped teachers’ perceptions of autonomy within their work environments.

In the quantitative phase, survey data were collected from 123 elementary and middle school teachers across three school divisions in Southeastern Virginia. Measures included teacher autonomy, work motivation, and intentions to leave one’s school or division and the teaching …


Learning In Motion: How Small Groups Can Promote Self-Regulated Learning In Physical Therapy Students, Sara Mclaren Apr 2026

Learning In Motion: How Small Groups Can Promote Self-Regulated Learning In Physical Therapy Students, Sara Mclaren

STEMPS Theses & Dissertations

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a critical skill for success in rigorous graduate health professions programs, where students must independently manage complex academic demands. Despite its importance, limited research has examined SRL processes among Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) students in the didactic phase of training. Guided by Zimmerman’s cyclical model of self-regulated learning, this study examined SRL behaviors among second-year DPT students and explored how small group learning contexts may influence engagement in SRL processes and academic performance.

This mixed-methods study included 39 DPT students enrolled in a physical therapy program at a public university in the southeastern United States. …


Deferred Action Theory As A Framework For Adaptive Educational Procurement: Navigating Uncertainty And Digital Transformation In Education Systems, Herdiana Herdiana, B. Yuliarto Nugroho, Andreo Wahyudi Atmoko Mar 2026

Deferred Action Theory As A Framework For Adaptive Educational Procurement: Navigating Uncertainty And Digital Transformation In Education Systems, Herdiana Herdiana, B. Yuliarto Nugroho, Andreo Wahyudi Atmoko

Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan

Public procurement constitutes a significant portion of national expenditure and directly affects economic growth, service delivery, and governance quality. In Indonesia, education sector procurement absorbs more than half of the allocated budget but remains vulnerable to inefficiencies, rigid procedures, and corruption risks. This study aims to conceptualize an adaptive framework for Public Procurement Business Process Management (PP-BPM) that addresses environmental uncertainty, digital transformation, and governance challenges. This conceptual study integrates Deferred Action Theory (DAT), Emergent Business Processes (EBP), and Business Process Management (BPM) to develop a multi-level framework for procurement. The analysis covers strategic, managerial, and operational dimensions, emphasizing deferment …


Emotional Intelligence Of Early College High School Juniors, Donna M. Besant Mar 2026

Emotional Intelligence Of Early College High School Juniors, Donna M. Besant

Morehead State Theses and Dissertations

A capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in the Ernst and Sara Lane Volgenau College of Education at Morehead State University by Donna M. Besant on March 31, 2026.


The Living Lab: Instructional Design Interventions To Improve Communication And Equity In Federal Housing Programs, Joana I. Camp Mar 2026

The Living Lab: Instructional Design Interventions To Improve Communication And Equity In Federal Housing Programs, Joana I. Camp

Knowledge and Creativity Expo

The Living Lab is an independent applied research project informed by my 25 years of lived experience as a Section 8 voucher holder, examining how instructional design strategies can improve administrative workflows, communication, and equitable access within the Housing Choice Voucher Program. Drawing on sustained participation, the research identifies two primary systemic barriers: the federally mandated 15-day inspection period and incomplete Request for Tenancy Approval (RFTA) packets. To address these issues, the project developed the RFTA Roadmap—a zero-cost, clarity-driven communication tool that embeds sequential instructions directly within procedural workflows, mitigating the Split-Attention Effect and cognitive “Bandwidth Tax” associated with standard …


Language Development In Military-Affiliated Children: The Role Of Parental Absence, Jenna K. Walton Mar 2026

Language Development In Military-Affiliated Children: The Role Of Parental Absence, Jenna K. Walton

Morehead State Theses and Dissertations

A capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in the Ernst and Sara Lane Volgenau College of Education at Morehead State University by Jenna K. Walton on March 23, 2026.


Analyzing Methods To Support Students Left Behind In Colorado Primary/Secondary Schools, Grace Hudson Mar 2026

Analyzing Methods To Support Students Left Behind In Colorado Primary/Secondary Schools, Grace Hudson

Undergraduate Theses, Capstones, and Recitals

In the United States, there has been an increase of deportations, since 2024, of undocumented immigrants. This has disproportionally affected Mexicans and others from Latin American countries (Dreby 2012) due to them being the largest group of undocumented people in the United States. One effect of these deportations is an increase in children that are left in the United States while their parent(s) are in detention or have been deported. Some of these children are in mixed-status families, which means that the child has a different citizenship status than their parents or other members in their family, which allows for …


Examining The Effects Of Success Coaching At West Kentucky Community And Technical College: A Quantitative Analysis Of Academic Performance, Retention, And Credential Completion, Sanci E. Teague Mar 2026

Examining The Effects Of Success Coaching At West Kentucky Community And Technical College: A Quantitative Analysis Of Academic Performance, Retention, And Credential Completion, Sanci E. Teague

Morehead State Theses and Dissertations

A capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in the Ernst and Sara Lane Volgenau College of Education at Morehead State University by Sanci E. Teague on March 20, 2026.


Mokken Scale Analysis Of The Teacher Formative Assessment Practice Scale, Eric Asare Mar 2026

Mokken Scale Analysis Of The Teacher Formative Assessment Practice Scale, Eric Asare

Knowledge and Creativity Expo

This study examined the nonparametric item response characteristics of the Teacher Formative Assessment Practice Scale (TFAPS) using Mokken scale analysis within its established two‑factor structure. The TFAPS includes a teacher‑directed subscale (items 1–6) and a student‑directed subscale (items 7–10), each intended to capture distinct dimensions of formative assessment practice. Weighted Loevinger scalability coefficients for polytomous items were computed to assess how well each subscale met the assumptions of the monotone homogeneity model. Results indicated that the teacher‑directed subscale had a scalability coefficient of H = 0.354 and Cronbach’s alpha of 0.721, suggesting weak but acceptable internal structure. In contrast, the …