History Commons^™

Inward Baptism: The Theological Origins Of Evangelicalism, Baird L. Tipson

Gettysburg College Faculty Books

Inward Baptism analyses the theological developments that led to the great evangelical revivals of the mid-eighteenth century. Baird Tipson here demonstrates how the rationale for the "new birth," the characteristic and indispensable evangelical experience, developed slowly but inevitably from Luther's critique of late medieval Christianity.

Addressing the great indulgence campaigns of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, Luther's perspective on sacramental baptism, as well as the confrontation between Lutheran and Reformed theologians who fastened on to different aspects of Luther's teaching, Tipson sheds light on how these disparate historical moments collectively created space for evangelicalism.

This leads to an …

Economies Of Security: Foucault And The Genealogy Of Neoliberal Reason, Marshall Scheider

Gettysburg Social Sciences Review

Michel Foucault is well-known for his theorizations of institutional power, normativity, and biopolitics. Less well-known is the fact that Foucault developed his analysis of biopolitics in and through his historical investigation of neoliberalism. Today, while critique of neoliberalism has become a commonplace of humanities discourse, and popular resistance to neoliberalization rocks the southern hemisphere, it remains unclear that the historical specificity of neoliberalism is well-understood. In particular, the relation between classical liberalism and neoliberal governance remains murky in popular debate. As Foucault powerfully illustrates, this relation is far from clear-cut, and neoliberalism is not reducible to a simple extension of …

Neighborhood Change Within New Jersey: The Evolutionary History That Led To The New Newark, David Medina

Student Publications

As Newark lies 10 miles west of Manhattan, there is an increased encroachment from investors and gentrifies as surrounding cities such as Hoboken and Jersey City become too expensive and overcrowded. Known as the “Brick City”, Newark has history dating back to 1666. Leading up to World War II Newark was thriving, until an increase in suburban development and white flight that altered the race demographic. After years of racial stigma, the history of Newark is at risk as gentrification and neighborhood change looms over the city and its 282,862 residents, many of which are minorities.

The Komsomol Experience Under Stalin, Grace E. Gallagher

Student Publications

Founded in 1918, the Communist Youth Organization, more commonly known as the Komsomol, was used as a method for political socialization for Soviet youth by providing a sense of community, activities, and a sense of identity. The organization was also used as a way to bolster the Soviet military and generate propaganda. The Komsomol was at its height during the Stalinist period. Members played substantial roles in the major highlights of Stalin’s political career, including the Five-Year Plans, the Purges, and World War II, giving them the political experience necessary to rise as a new generation of party leaders.

Thinking Of Home: The World War Two Letters Of Gerald Koster, Erica L. Uszak

Student Publications

This paper covers the letters of Gerald Koster, who served aboard the USS New Jersey during World War Two. This paper covers his letters from the time of his enlistment in January 1943 through November 1943, and shows how his attitude towards the Navy, his parents, and his home changed over that period, as Koster became homesick and lost enthusiasm for Navy life.

Bangor Revisited: Bishop Benjamin Hoadly And Enlightenment Ecclesiology, Christopher T. Lough

Student Publications

As a Whig and a latitudinarian, Bishop Benjamin Hoadly of Bangor (1676-1761) was a persistent critic of any and all things Tory. His sermon “The Nature of the Kingdom, or Church, of Christ,” preached before King George I in 1717, touched upon the political and theological controversies that followed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution. It also forwarded a radical ecclesiological schema: effectively arguing that the Church of England lacked real moral authority, he advocated for its subsumption under the state’s own auspices. An analysis of Hoadly’s sermon, as well as his conduct throughout the ensuing Bangorian controversy, will …

The Silent Reich: Austria’S Failed Denazification, Henry F. Goodson

Student Publications

Between 1945 and 1956, the Second Austrian Republic failed to address the large number of former Austrian Nazis. Due to Cold War tensions, the United States, Britain, and France helped to downplay Austria’s cooperation with the Nazi Reich in order to secure the state against the Soviets. In an effort to stall the spread of socialism, former fascists were even recruited by Western intelligence services to help inform on the activities of socialists and communists within Austria. Furthermore, the Austrian people were a deeply conservative society, which often supported many of the far-right’s positions, as can be seen throughout contemporary …

"I Am Not A Prisoner Of War": Agency, Adaptability, And Fulfillment Of Expectations Among American Prisoners Of War Held In Nazi Germany, Jessica N. Greenman

Student Publications

In war memory, the typical prisoner of war narrative is one of either passive survival or heroic resistance. However, captured service members did not necessarily lose their agency when they lost their freedom. This study of Americans held in Germany during the Second World War shows that prisoners generally grounded themselves in their personal and national identities, while compromising ideas of heroism, sometimes passing up opportunities for resistance in order to survive.

“Reds Driven Off”: The Us Media’S Propaganda During The Gulf Of Tonkin Incident, Steven M. Landry

Student Publications

In 2008, the Annenburg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania conducted a poll to determine just how informed voters were following that year’s presidential election. One of the most shocking things they found was that 46.4% of those polled still believed that Saddam Hussein played a role in the terrorist attacks on the US on September 11th, 2001. No evidence had ever emerged linking him to it after 5 years of war in Iraq, but that did not matter, as “voters, once deceived, tend to stay that way despite all evidence.” Botched initial reporting can permanently entrench false …

Be Good: Hatred And Hope In The Letters Of Gerald Koster, Steven M. Landry

Student Publications

To tell an informative story about someone’s life is difficult at the best of times. Gerald “Gerry” Koster’s correspondence during his last year of service in the US Navy towards the end of the Pacific War can thus only paint an incomplete portrait of who he was and what exactly the war meant to him. Nevertheless, there are things that his letters can teach readers, not only about Koster’s role and daily activities in the military, but about his personal character and how that manifested in his interactions with the defeated Japanese and his family. And perhaps, through his personal …

Illusions Of Grandeurs: Washingtonian Architecture As Seen By White And Black People Of The Early Nineteenth Century, Lillian D. Shea

Student Publications

In the early nineteenth century, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson built a classically inspired capital designed to legitimize American republican ideals. White interpretations of the architecture gradually aligned more with the founders’ intentions, especially following its reconstruction after the 1814 conflagration. Enslaved and free black observers recognized their exclusion from the message of freedom and equality. Rather than finding their identity through federal buildings, they established their communities within churches, houses, and businesses owned by black people. The varied reactions to Washington’s and Jefferson’s designs demonstrated how the aesthetic idealization of republicanism revealed incongruities in the new capital.

The Great Wave: Margaret Thatcher, The Neo-Liberal Age, And The Transformation Of Modern Britain, John M. Zak

Student Publications

Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1979-1990. During this period she implemented policies that profoundly changed British society, politics, and its economy through neoliberal policies. This work seeks to analyze those policies and its impact on Great Britain. From Thatcher’s economic policies of neoliberalism, social policies toward the unemployed, and her foreign policy of national reinvigoration, this work seeks to provide a panoramic analysis of Thatcher’s premiership and its long term impact on Britain.This work will also seek to argue that Thatcher and her policies were both revolutionary in their thinking and contributed to realigning British political …

Cives Arma Ferant: Reconstructing Infantry Combat And Training In The European Theater Of Operations, Phil R. Kaspriskie

Student Publications

A common theme in memoirs, oral histories, and other sources dealing with servicemen in World War II seems to be a focus on the experience of combat. Training, particularly individual training, is rarely discussed beyond a cursory mention, and if it is discussed at all, the overwhelming tendency is to paint a picture of half-trained cannon fodder, at best.

This paper’s goal is twofold: First, explore methods of instruction at the individual and unit levels, and explain the reasoning behind the evolution of training as the Army Ground Forces’ understanding of contemporary warfare changed; second, provide a case study at …

“Peace For Our Time”: Past And Present Receptions Of Neville Chamberlain’S Speech And The Munich Agreement, Erica L. Uszak

Student Publications

This paper covers British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's role in the Munich Agreement, as well as his September 30th speech in London, and explains how Chamberlain's attempt to negotiate "peace" with Hitler was received by the public. This paper examines three major newspapers: The London Times, The Manchester Guardian, and The New York Times, to see whether the press interpreted Chamberlain's negotiation with Hitler as a success or a failure. The paper also builds off of the newspapers' coverage to explain how Chamberlain and his policy of appeasement have been perceived through present-day.

"They Were Only Playin' Leapfrog!": The Infantryman And The Staff Officer In The British Army In The Great War, Benjamin M. Roy

Student Publications

The British Infantryman of the First World War hated Staff Officers more than any other supporting or service branch in the BEF. This essay explores this attitude, its motivations, and the ways complaining helped British Infantrymen endure the Great War. It argues that the British Infantryman felt separate from the Staff Officers because of his intimate understanding of combat and killing and manifested his frustration with the helpless circumstances of war by hating Staff Officers, but ultimately understood the Staff Officer's role and the necessity of their service. By reconsidering the hackneyed views of the 'Poor Bloody Infantry' a new …

Night Falls, Fighters Fly: The Development And Evolution Of Navy Night Fighters In World War Ii, Mark A. Urbon

Student Publications

It is nearly impossible to overestimate the importance of radar in the Second World War. This piece of Allied technology was one which the Axis were never able to truly overcome. This paper will comprehensively explore how radar was used in the development of U.S. Navy carrier-borne night fighters in World War II. It seeks not just to demonstrate the effectiveness with which night fighters to use, but also the understudied and under-appreciated technological accomplishment that was night fighting. Whereas other works on the subject serve largely as roadmaps or timelines detailing the key moments in night fighter history, this …

The National Intelligencer Validating Cowardice: How A Washington D.C. Newspaper Redefined Defeat Into Republican Victory, Wesley C. Cline

Student Publications

The fall and burning of Washington D.C. without substantial resistance by the American army and militia was initially an obvious disgrace, however the widely read Washington based newspaper, The National Intelligencer, sought to rewrite this story of defeat into a narrative highlighting republican virtue. Utilizing preexisting stereotypes perpetuated in their paper of British soldiers acting immoral, the staff of The National Intelligencer articulated that the men defending Washington had to return to their individual homes on account of the impending barbarism and savagery of the British invaders, therefore vindicating the militiamen of their lack of resistance and praising their virtuous …

The Holodomor: A Tragic Famine Or Genocide Against The Ukrainian Peoples?, Jordan C. Cerone

Student Publications

The Ukrainian Starvation of 1932-33, also known as the Holodomor, was a famine that impacted the Soviet Union, especially Ukraine, as a result of Stalinist policies and the First Five-Year Plan. This paper looks to argue that the events leading up to and during the famine were evidence of a genocide committed against the Ukrainian people. When the word was defined during the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in response to what had happened to European Jews during the Holocaust, certain groups that would and have been victims of genocide, along with actions that …

The Ussr And The Gdr: Mutual Collapse, Jessica M. Alessi

Student Publications

The Soviet Union had a number of satellite states, where communist puppet regimes were propped up in order to serve the interests of the Soviet Union. The Eastern Bloc was established with the goal of spreading the Soviet style of government, regardless of its unpopularity. The only reason that the communist regimes in these states were able to survive was because of Soviet support. This meant that the decline of the Soviet Union and the individual bloc states fed into each other. This is examined through the case of the German Democratic Republic and its relations with the Soviet Union.

"Here All Seems Security And Peace!": How Brookeville, Maryland Became United States Capital For A Day, Lindsay R. Richwine

Student Publications

When the British burned Washington D.C. during the War of 1812, the city’s civilians and officials fled to the surrounding countryside to escape the carnage. Fearful that the attack on the Capital could eventually spell defeat and worried for their city, these refugees took shelter in the homes and fields of Brookeville, Maryland, a small, Quaker mill town on the outskirts of Washington. These pacifist residents of Brookeville hosted what could have been thousands of Washingtonians in the days following the attack, ensuring the safety of not only the people of Washington, but of President Madison himself. As hosts to …

The Life And Legacy Of James I, King Of England, Nicholas S. Arbaugh

Student Publications

As the first member of the Stuart line to hold the Kingdoms of England, Ireland, and Scotland under his suzerainty, the life and reign of King James I was always going to mark a serious turning point in the histories of the lands under his control. The Tudors, who had dominated English politics, religion, and culture since the end of the War of the Roses, had been extinguished with the death of the childless Queen Elizabeth I. Their successors, the Stuarts, would find that their personal rule over the British Isles would mark some of the most defining moments in …

Winning Hearts And Minds: Tactics Of Insurgency And Counterinsurgency In The Early Roman Empire, Wesley C. Cline

Student Publications

The most common strategy for "Romanizing" a province was through developing connections with elites in the indigenous society coupled with (in many cases) the inclusion of regional gods into the Roman pantheon. These ties were cemented as Romans adopted the provincial religious deities and the sons of prominent locals were sent to Rome for the finest education of the day. This system allowed for relative stability in the provinces, particularly when the Roman provincial governor was sensitive to local customs. What about those indigenous people whose goals conflicted with those of Rome? How does one combat a monolithic power with …

Brexit, A Brief Historical Analysis, Amy E. Cantrell

Student Publications

This paper will specifically examine the historical impact of decolonization, integration and immigration on the 2020 Brexit decision. The research will identify key events that have contributed to a rise in British Euroscepticism which has continuously served as backdrop for British isolationism and anti-immigrant thought. A study of the increased movement of people attributed to mass mobilization following decolonization and integration will play a key role in highlighting the effects Brexit will have both on Britain and on an international platform. Emphasis will be placed on the implications this history and resulting policies will have on the economic prosperity and …

The 'Spanish Flu': A True Global Pandemic, Erin H. Keener

Student Publications

This paper examines the portrayal of the 'Spanish Flu' in the press as it was emerging on the scene in 1918. Using contemporaneous newspaper articles, it shows the evolution from denial, to blame, and eventually to a call to action that developed as it spread around the country. This piece also provides some insight into the parallels between this pandemic and the current Covid 19 pandemic in regard to how both were handled, and what can be learned from when this devastating occurrence repeats itself.

Elmer Mckee: A Window Into The Past, Erin H. Keener

Student Publications

Elmer McKee was a Gettysburg College graduate, decorated World War II soldier, successful in his career, and a humble family man. This paper examines his correspondence with his then girlfriend "Diz," from February 25, 1945 to April 5, 1945, it is in this time that he is awarded the Bronze Star Medal. This work attempts to piece together his experiences overseas and how he coped with the experience at such a young age, examining as well what image he wanted to project outwards to his friends and family.

Sport Under The Iron Curtain: Alliance, Defection, And Competition During The Cold War, Samuel A. Sheldon

Student Publications

The crossroads at which Sports and Politics connect is the Summer Olympics. This is most evident is during the Olympics of the Cold War. Typically, sports history of the Cold War covers the clash between the United States and the Soviet Union. But examined further, Sports Politics in the Cold War was experienced by the other countries of the Eastern Bloc. Hungary’s Golden Team in Helsinki 1952, Bulgaria’s wrestlers in Rome 1960, East Germany’s success through drug use at Munich 1972, and Poland’s Pole Vaulters in Moscow 1980. Each case exemplifies the complex nature of sports politics, showing the connection …

“Strike Up” And Mobilize The Band: Musical Activities In The United States Military During World War Ii, Max R. Bouchard

Student Publications

After the United States’ entry into the Second World War, music was one of the most prominent forms of art and popular entertainment to be repurposed by the federal government as part of the mobilization for war. The military implemented numerous music programs produced and consumed by a wide range of service personnel. These activities functioned as a means of building morale among military and civilian audiences, both on the domestic home front and in foreign nations, and disseminating an image of American culture that reinforced a set of values integral to the war effort. In order to present this …

Manly Mud: Portrayal Of Masculinity In Infantry Units In World War Two As Seen In The Comics Of Bill Mauldin, Aren G. Heitmann

Student Publications

This essay will explore the comics of Bill Mauldin published during World War Two and how masculinity in the infantry was portrayed. Current studies on masculinity in World War Two have focused on soldier’s accounts of the war as well as depictions of soldiers in propaganda. Some work on the effects of comics during the war has also been done but nothing as of yet has combined the two. This paper aims to look at how the comics of Bill Mauldin supported or rejected the model masculine archetype that was developed through propaganda and became a privileged figure in conceptualization …

Who Builds The Motherland?, Benjamin D. Goldman

Georges Lieber Essay Contest on Resistance

I was born in 2002 into a middle-class Jewish family, in a very Jewish town. The town was our Zion, our Mini-Israel, our bubble. It prided itself on being a sleepy town where any American can feel safe and comfortable. At the best of times, the town felt like a family; everyone knew your name and many children born in the town decided to live the rest of their adult lives there. It was a place where the support of Israel was of utmost importance. Although everyone prided themselves on the security, there was always this unease that our human …

Holding On To History, Jesse A. Cromer

Georges Lieber Essay Contest on Resistance

When I searched for the story of Georges Lieber, the very man whose drive to resist inspired the concept for this essay, I could not find it. The only trace of him was his record on the Yad Vashem database which merely states that he was a student and that he was transported from Lyon, France to Auschwitz in 1944. His story, along with much of Holocaust history, remains unknown or misunderstood for many people, both from my generation and those before us. As a long-term student of history and an aspiring educator, I have chosen to resist the sliding …