Chinese Studies Commons^™

Negotiating Plurality: Korean Catholic Funerals As Lived Religion, Jieun Han

Journal of Global Catholicism

This article examines Korean Catholic funeral rites through the lenses of ritual

guidebooks and lived religion, arguing that Catholic funerary practice in Korea

has emerged through sustained engagement with Confucian and Buddhist tradi-

tions as well as modern nationalism. Focusing on Catholic manuals such as the

Sangjang yesik [Rites for Mourning and Funerals] and related texts, it traces how

officially sanctioned liturgical forms coexist with, accommodate, and reinterpret

indigenous ritual logics surrounding mourning, burial, ancestor veneration, and

care for the dead. Rather than viewing Korean Catholic funerals as a simple

localization of Roman rites, the article conceptualizes them as a …

Editor's Introduction, Brent H. Otto S.J.

Journal of Global Catholicism

No abstract provided.

Teaching China Beyond Eurocentrism: Intercultural Pedagogy And The Case Of The República Del Reino De La China By Jerónimo Román Zamora, Miriam Diaz Belizon

Comparative Philosophy

Interdisciplinary approaches to teaching China in Western academic contexts often reproduce Eurocentric frameworks that reduce Chinese philosophical and cultural traditions to subordinate objects of analysis. This article proposes an alternative model grounded in intercultural philosophy and the Filosofías del Sur, arguing that China should be approached not as a distant object of representation, but as an epistemic interlocutor capable of transforming philosophical education. The article develops this argument through the recovery of the República del Reino de la China, included in the 1595 edition of Repúblicas del Mundo, as a key example of early intercultural mediation from the European South. …

Ethics Under Siege: The Conflict In Tigray Through The Lens Of Just War Theory, Daniela Widya Purba

Journal of Strategic and Global Studies

This research article explains the ethical principles of the conflict in Tigray based on the Just War Theory. By using the descriptive qualitative methodology, this research article draws data from secondary sources which includes; academic journals, news reports, as well as international legal instruments to analyze the moral trajectory of the conflict. This research begins with jus ad bellum, to assess Ethiopia’s government justification in declaring conflict within Tigray. While the government fulfilled the criteria of just cause and legitimate authority, the question stands on the ambiguous political intentions and the failure to enact peaceful alternatives before resulting in waging …

Presidential Visits As Foreign Policy Instruments: U.S. Indo-Pacific Strategy In Trump’S Second Term, Atar Thaung Htet

Journal of Strategic and Global Studies

Through an analysis of President Donald Trump's October 2025 travel to Asia, this study investigates the consequences of U.S. Indo-Pacific strategy under his second-term diplomacy. The paper examines three significant diplomatic encounters—the ASEAN Summit in Malaysia, bilateral meetings in Japan, and the APEC Summit in South Korea—using a qualitative case study methodology based on role theory and foreign policy analysis. The results show that alliance-centered security cooperation, strategic balancing toward China, and selective economic engagement were U.S. Indo-Pacific goals. Through extremely transactional and bilateralized relations, presidential diplomacy allowed the United States to fulfill a number of foreign policy responsibilities, such …

Penggunaan Onomatope Dalam Buku Cerita Anak Berbahasa Mandarin Dan Bahasa Indonesia: Analisis Kontrastif, Ruixi Zou, Usmi Usmi, Uti Aryanti

Multikultura

This article examines the comparison of onomatopoeia in Mandarin Chinese and Indonesian in children's literature. The study aims to identify, classify, and compare onomatopoeic forms found in the Mandarin children's story Bǎo Húlú De Mìmì (The Secret of the Magic Gourd) and the Indonesian children's story collection Sehari Satu Dongeng. This research employs a descriptive qualitative approach and a contrastive analysis method. The data were collected through close reading and note-taking techniques, and were analyzed using referential and comparative methods. The classification is based on the source of the represented sounds, namely human sounds, animal sounds, natural phenomena, and …

Hindu Poetry And The Project Of An Inter-Spiritual Catholic Theology, Francis X. Clooney

Journal of Global Catholicism

This article engages the work of the Indian south Indian Tamil-language Vaiṣṇava poet saints known as the Alvārs. The article specifically focuses the First HundredHoly Linked verses of Poykai Ālvār to argue for inter-spiritual learning between Catholics and Hindus. The article concludes with personal reflections on this encounter within the context of the global Catholic Church

Living Through Misinformation: An Autoethnography Of Autism In Chinese Communities, Joy Lu

Ought: The Journal of Autistic Culture

This critical autoethnographic essay examines how misconception, misinformation, and disinformation shape understandings of autism within Chinese communities and produce tangible harm for autistic individuals and their families. Drawing on lived experience, advocacy work, digital observation, and cross-cultural analysis, it explores how language, medical practices, social media, and professional authority sustain persistent misrepresentation.

The essay argues that this misinformation is not merely the result of ignorance, but a socially reinforced and institutionally supported system of knowledge. By situating personal encounters within broader cultural and structural contexts, it highlights the interconnected roles of language, power, and exclusion in shaping autistic lives. It …

Asia Pacific Perspectives Vol. 19 No. 1, 2025, University Of San Francisco

Asia Pacific Perspectives

Articles

Think Pieces

Photo Essay

Book Reviews

Closing The Revolution: The Criticize Water Margin Campaign And The Politics Of Surrender In Mao’S China, Yaowen Dong

Asia Pacific Perspectives

The mid 1970s witnessed a massive Maoist campaign to attack the late imperial vernacular fiction Water Margin, which had been previously favored by the Chinese Communist Party because of its elements of rebellion and egalitarianism. The paper examines the Criticize Water Margin Campaign in 1975 and 1976 that interpreted the fiction as class-reconciliation and surrender. I argue that the dramatic shift of the narratives surrounding Water Margin manifested the deeply embedded paradox between rebellion and normalization in the communist revolutionary project. Such paradox of revolution is not only the product of the infringement of the coming neoliberal world order, …

Between The Middle Kingdom And The Middle Way: An Analysis Of State Power And Sacred Authority In The Sino-Tibet Conflict, Madison M. Berry, Aimee N. Ebeling, Jayden A. Hanson

Pepperdine Journal of Communication Research

This research paper addresses the growing concerns of the Sino-Tibetan conflict by analyzing the relationship between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) through an intercultural communication and negotiation lens. By analyzing historical relationships between the two parties and comparing them to similar contemporary situations, this paper examines the sinicization of the Tibetan people. By exploring the “Old Tibet” and “New Tibet” narratives, while acknowledging the centrality of the Dalai Lama to both parties, it also addresses territorial disagreements and the contrasting understandings of sovereignty and modernization, which fuel the conflict. Finally, a policy framework …

From Collection To Documentary: An Eventful Journey Of Developing And Managing The Wan-Go H.C. Weng Film Collection, Jim Cheng

Journal of East Asian Libraries

Experience, challenge, lesson, reward, and inspiration of developing and managing a special collection: Wan-go Weng Film Collection in a major research library.

The Taichung Polyglot, Mårten S. Saarela

Journal of East Asian Libraries

No abstract provided.

Qingming Jie: Across The Horizon, Elby Wang

Emerging Writers

This paper attempts to provide an understanding of an Asian tradition, Qingming Jie, by providing the past, the present, and the future of the tradition. The article explains the origin of Qingming Jie as well as contemporary changes to the tradition and explores how practicing this tradition differs from practicing in the motherland.

Ancestral Rites And Tablets As A Site Of Contestation Between Confucian Filial Piety And Catholicism: The Cases Of Chinese Confucian Yan Mo And Korean Catholic Yun Ji-Chung, Mideum Hong

Journal of Global Catholicism

This essay examines how the Confucian practice of filial piety, particularly as expressed through ancestral rites and tablets, became a focal point of contention in the encounters between Confucianism and Catholicism. Focusing on the cases of the Chinese Catholic Yan Mo and the Korean Catholic martyr Yun Ji-chung, I argue that the different historical and cultural contexts in China and Korea significantly shaped how each figure understood and responded to the practice of ancestral rites. While Catholicism spread globally, local converts developed distinct theological interpretations rooted in their respective cultural traditions. Although Yan Mo and Yun Ji-chung reached divergent conclusions …

Overview & Acknowledgments, Mathew Schmalz

Journal of Global Catholicism

This Introduction overviews the work of contributors from the Graduate Symposium sponsored by the Journal of Global Catholicism and the McFarland Center for Religion, Ethics and Culture.  The Introduction also highlights the independent peer reviewed submission from Dr. Agnieszka Laddach of the University of Warsaw.

Literature Review: Crowdfunding And Political Fundraising, Saiful Ahmad, Palupi Lindiasari Samputra

Journal of Strategic and Global Studies

Crowdfunding is an effort to raise relatively small amounts of money involving many individuals to support a specific project. Typically, crowdfunding is conducted online through fundraising platforms. The aim of this paper is to identify and analyse the utilisation of crowdfunding in fundraising activities that are related to or have political goals carried out by certain organisations or political groups. The method used in this paper is qualitative in the form of narrative analysis carried out through in-depth reading of several scientific literatures that discuss political fundraising through crowdfunding. The sources of scientific literature collection were obtained through the Google …

How A Stay-At-Home Father Plays A Role In Family Resilience?, Fatimah Fatimah, Eko Daryanto

Journal of Strategic and Global Studies

One of the impacts of modernization is the loss of barriers between job and particular gender. This also happens in the family unit, more specifically in the role of husband and wife. The husband's job which is identical to earn money and the wife's job is to manage the household should be able to be done more flexibly according to family conditions. This adaptation process is needed in order to strengthen family resilience. Non-traditional family composition that usually consist of a stay-at-home father and a working mother can be used as a family adaptation strategy. This study uses the results …

Implementation Of Zero Trust Architecture On Local Server Management In Educational Institutions, Joko Purwanto, Safar Dwi Kurniawan

Journal of Strategic and Global Studies

Educational institutions are facing increasingly complex cyber threats, particularly as they continue to rely on on-premises servers with limited cybersecurity resources. Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) offers a security model that rejects implicit trust and requires strict verification of each access request. This study aims to examine the applicability of ZTA in managing local servers within educational institutions through a qualitative literature review approach. Relevant literature from 2014 to 2025 was analyzed using thematic synthesis to identify recurring concepts, strategies, and gaps. The results show that ZTA, when integrated with Identity and Access Management (IAM), Security Information and Event Management (SIEM), …

Cyborg Feminism And Toxic Colonialism In Chen Qiufan’S Waste Tide, Yuan Yuan

CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture

The article probes into the interrelationships among cyborg technology, sexual violence, and toxic colonialism represented in the Chinese SF novel Waste Tide by Chen Qiufan. It applies methodologies in posthumanism and ecofeminism and situates the text in the Chinese as well as a global context. It intends to provide a non-Western perspective to understand cyborg feminism by associating the Chinese historical reality with trans-species thinking. It argues that the SF author Chen Qiufan is critical about the anthropogenic body modifications which may challenge the process of female resistance and resilience in the face of gender and colonial oppression. By doing …

Traversing The Internal And External Worlds: An Analysis Of Du Fu’S Use Of Nature Imagery, Arwen Mox

Rushton Journal of Undergraduate Humanities Research

Born in 712, the Chinese poet Du Fu lived in the cultural peak of the High Tang and the devastating events and aftermath of the An Lushan Rebellion in 755. This essay explores how Du Fu employs nature imagery as a medium for reflection the internal and external worlds. By tracking the use of this motif across the three major periods of his work as embodied in three different poems, the nuanced shifts in his portrayal of nature and humanity becomes apparent. This essay argues that nature is a versatile medium within Du Fu’s work.

A World Between Worlds: The Hidden Disconnect Of Chinese Autistic Individuals, Joy Lu

Ought: The Journal of Autistic Culture

This paper examines the complex challenges faced by Chinese autistic individuals navigating both Western autism communities and broader Chinese cultural contexts. Drawing on personal experience, community observation, and cultural analysis, it explores how language barriers, cultural stigma, and differing values create a unique form of disconnection for the Chinese autistic community. This paper argues that current neurodiversity discourse is dominated by Western frameworks that often fail to account for this disconnect, resulting in the exclusion of entire groups. By centring Chinese perspectives, it calls for a more culturally responsive approach to autism advocacy: one that bridges linguistic, cultural, and historical …

《大慈恩寺三藏法師傳》材源考, Te Chen

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

《大慈恩寺三藏法師傳》是記録玄奘生平最全面詳實的傳記，檢討其書與《續高僧傳》、冥祥（詳）《大唐故三藏玄奘法師行狀》關係可知：《續高僧傳》有關玄奘的傳記最早寫成，但對玄奘一生只有大致的概括；慧立、彦惊之《大慈恩寺三藏法師傳》經歷了許多波折方纔寫就，其傳最爲詳實，且應當參考了《續高僧傳》；冥祥（詳）之《大唐故三藏玄奘法師行狀》最晚出，本於《慈恩傳》而參考《續高僧傳》。在此基礎上進一步考察可知，十卷《大慈恩寺三藏法師傳》之前五卷，主要依據《大唐西域記》；後五卷則主要根據玄奘回國後和朝廷往來的公文書撰成。此外，來自玄奘本人的回憶與口述以及當時社會上流行的有關玄奘的傳説故事，也零散貫穿全書。综合把握《大慈恩寺三藏法師傳》的兩類史料來源——書面與口傳，可進一步分疏其間的歷史、宗教與文學元素。

The Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery is the most comprehensive and detailed record of Xuanzang’s life. By examining its relationship with The Further Biographies of Eminent Monks and Mingxiang’s The Deeds of the Late Tripitaka Master Xuanzang of the Great Tang, we can discern the following: The biography of Xuanzang in The Further Biographies of Eminent Monks was the earliest to be written, but it only provides a general outline of his life. The Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery by Huili and Yancong underwent many difficulties before its …

“據譯單重”到多軌並途 : 漢文佛教目録分類之演變, Guodong Feng, Hui Xia

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

典籍的分類方式，是佛教目録最重要的表現形式，也是佛教目録撰作者學術思想、觀念與撰録因由最爲直接的體現。漢文佛教目録最初本爲記録經典傳譯，於是產生了根據經典產生方式的“據譯單重”分類法。其後随著認識的深入，根據經典性質分爲經、律、論三藏,根據經典體制分爲大、小乘的“乘藏分類法”逐漸取得统治地位。明代末年，出現了依據天台五時判教分類經典的“依義銓次”分類法。近現代以來，由於西方學術觀念的傳入與知識生產方式的變化，漢文佛教目録的分類方式日趨多元。

The method of categorizing scriptures is the most crucial feature of Buddhist catalogs, directly reflecting the academic thought, perspectives, and motivations of their compilers. Initially, Chinese Buddhist catalogs were created to document the translation of scriptures, leading to the emergence of the “single-layer translation-based classification” method, which categorized texts based on their origins in translation. As understanding deepened, the “Tripiṭaka classification method” became dominant, dividing scriptures into the three categories of sutras (teachings), vinayas (disciplinary rules), and śāstra (treatises) based on their nature, and further into Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna texts according to their doctrinal frameworks. By the late Ming …

北周尉遲迥相州舉兵的多重敘事構造 : 以《周書．尉遲迥傳》《尉遲迥廟碑》及《集神州三寶感通録》爲中心, Ling Tong

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

周隋革命的前夜，楊堅在帝都長安較爲順利地清除了異己，但在北周宣帝去世之後的三個月内，地方上先後有三支北周勤王之兵，即：相州總管尉遲迥、益州總管王謙、鄖州總管司馬消難。其中對於楊堅來説，最大的威脅來自鎮守東方的尉遲迥。本文詳細考察三類文獻：中古正史（《周書．尉遲迥傳》）、碑刻文獻（《尉遲迥廟碑》）、佛教史（《集神州三寳感通録》）對北周大象二年（580）六月尉遲迥相州舉兵這一事件的不同敘事。從北周到唐代，這一事件具有多重的敘事構造，每一種敘事構造的背後，體現了不同書寫者或者敘述者的需求與認同。

最值得留意的是唐代高僧道宣《集神州三寳感通録》，他通過對尉遲迥舉兵失敗之後的佛寺“感通”敘事，折射出了佛教史學與中古正统國史（碑刻）之間的内在張力，這種張力導致了多重敘事構造間的巨大差異。

On the eve of revolution between the Northern Zhou and the Sui Dynasty, Yang Jian eliminated the dissidents in the imperial capital Chang’an smoothly, but within three months after the death of Emperor Xuan of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, three armies which aimed at protecting the emperor were organized at the local level: Yuchi Jiong, the governor of Xiangzhou; Wang Qian, the governor of Yizhou; and Sima Xiaonan, the governor of Yunzhou. Among them, the biggest threat to Yang Jian came from Yuchi, who was guarding the east. This paper examines different narratives of Yuchi Jiong’s rebellion in …

引言, Yinchi Chen

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

佛教自兩漢之際傳人中土，逐漸深人中國文化之生命脈動，與儒、道諸固有精神傳統并存而匯流，蔚爲壯觀。中國古典文學堪稱中國文化最爲精粹之一脈，佛教文化與之交融，自兩晉以下，既爲客觀之事實，亦因而構成令人目不暇接之無數景觀，鄭振鐸先生通觀其所謂中世紀之六朝至明代的文學歷程，曾言 : “中世紀文學史裏的一件大事，便是佛教文學的輸人。從佛教文學輸人以後，我們的中世紀文學所經歷的路線，便和前大不相同了。我們於是有了許多偉大的翻譯的作品以外，在音韻上，在故事的題材上，在典故成語上，多多少少的都受有佛教文學的影響。最後，且更擬仿著印度文學的‘文體’而産生出好幾種弘偉無比的新的文體出來。”

20世紀以來，以現代的學術立場，專注、研討佛教文化因素在文人之精神世界、文學之形式内涵諸多方面之影響與作用，既多大師巨子，成果亦斐然可觀，在相當的程度上刷新了對若干文學演進關鍵環節乃至各時段文學 史面貌的認知與理解。迄今百餘年，“佛教與中國文學”之學術探究，依然呈現廣而深之前景。

謝靈運《辨宗論》融合儒釋及其思想史意義, Zhixi Qian

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

謝靈運《辨宗論》的“求宗”本體論與融合儒釋方法都與慧遠有濶源關係。慧遠認爲雖然儒之名教與釋之道法最終的趨向是相同的，但道法幽微則是堯孔所未曾闡述的。這是强調佛教的獨特價值及真理性，其闡述本體的立場仍在佛教。謝靈運雖然説自己的理論是折中於儒釋雙方，但實際上將真理問題的討論重心更大幅度地移向了儒家。他提出儒家的聖道無階級可達之論，以此來闡釋真理的完全性，闡明竺道生的求宗唯在頓悟的學説。謝靈運的基本思想，是以頓悟屬儒，而以漸悟屬釋，認爲儒釋雖然同歸，但儒家明真理而釋家重教化。因此，《辨宗論》更具有普遍的哲學本體論的性質。其在學術上的意義，是仿照實相、涅槃等佛教本體論建立起儒家的道論，其思想在儒家的原典是可以找到依據的。謝靈運還從華、夷民性之不同，即華民難於受教而易於覺理、夷人難於覺理而易於受教來説明儒、佛立教頓漸的不同。這觸及中國思想傳统的問題，即頓悟之説實是中土接受佛教或説佛教中國化過程中產生的問題。這一思想史的事實，需要進一步討論。竺道生的“一闡提人皆得成佛”説與其頓悟説相關，謝靈運應慧遠之請所作的《佛影銘》中“闡提獲自援之路”正是呼應道生之説。這一點似未被論者所注意。《佛影銘》比《辨宗論》早十年寫作。由此也可推論謝氏接受道生的頓悟及一闡提成佛之説的大致時間。

Xie Lingyun’s Bianzong Lun (On Distinguishing Ultimate Truth) [《辨宗論》] inherits its ontological framework of ‘‘apprehending philosophical truth” (求宗) and its syncretic methodology of reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism from Huiyuan. While Huiyuan asserted that Confucian teachings and Buddhist Dharma ultimately converge, he emphasized Buddhism’s unique metaphysical profundity, which surpassed the insights of Yao and Confucius, thereby affirming Buddhism’s distinct truth and ontological grounding. Although Xie Lingyun claimed to mediate between Confucianism and Buddhism, he subtly shifted the discourse on truth toward Confucianism. By proposing the Confucian notion of the “sagely path” as an ungraded, immediate realization of complete …

慧遠像論對中土象論的超越, Zong-Qi Cai

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

慧遠的“像論”以“神道無方，觸像而寄”爲核心，强調本體（神）通過具體形象（像）顯現，並成爲宗教修行與美學實踐的中介。本文從三方面探討其理論：其一，對比佛教東傳前中國傳统的“未形之象”（見於《楚辭》《老子》《莊子》）與《易經》的“卦畫之象”，指出慧遠像論突破中土的象論，賦予有物質形態的造像和山水以終極本體義；其二，分析其思想來源，包括小乘有部“法體恒有”説（神不滅論）、大乘化身説（佛像即法身顯現）及中觀思想（真俗相即），構建了“體―觀―像”的理論框架；其三，揭示其影響，如推動佛教觀想念佛的“感通”實踐，並催生謝靈運“山水佛教”等創作審美實踐。慧遠像論融合多元的佛教觀念，爲日後佛教文藝理論的發展奠定了基礎。

Huiyuan’s (334—416) theory of the image posits that the noumenon (the divine) becomes perceptible through specific forms, which in turn serve as a medium for both religious cultivation and aesthetic practice. This paper examines his theory from three perspectives.

First, it contrasts the pre-Buddhist Chinese concepts of the “imageless image” (未形之象) — found in texts such as the Songs of Chu, Laozi, and Zhuangzi — and the “hexagrammatic images” (卦畫之象) of the I Ching (Book of Changes). In doing so, it argues that Huiyuan’s theory transcended these native conceptions of the image by endowing physical forms, such as Buddha …

多元性視野下謝靈運的精神世界, Xiaoting Shi, Yinchi Chen

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

中古貴族文士往往具有多元的知識與思想背景，謝靈運博學多才，出自家學濶深的陳郡謝氏家族，又通達儒學、佛教、道教及老莊玄學等，本爲時代思潮之前沿人物。但謝靈運本人的精神世界始終複雜多端，頗由外界因緣驅動而起伏興變。這一特點投射於作品文本中，亦呈現出多元交織卻無以歸宗的思想風貌。

Aristocratic literati of the medieval period often possessed diverse knowledge and intellectual backgrounds. Xie Lingyun, a highly learned and talented individual, hailed from the prestigious Xie clan of Chen Prefecture. He was well-versed in Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, and the metaphysical teachings of Laozi and Zhuangzi, making him a figure at the forefront of the intellectual trends of his time. However, Xie Lingyun’s spiritual world remained complex and multifaceted, often shaped and influenced by external circumstances, leading to fluctuations and transformations. This characteristic is reflected in his literary works, which exhibit a diverse and interwoven yet unanchored intellectual style.

“分限” : 嚴羽“妙悟”説形上等級的佛學淵源與理論分域, Jinmei Zhang, Jingsong Yin

嶺南學報 Lingnan Journal of Chinese Studies

緣於文獻版本流傳的差異和佛教語源考索的欠缺，“分限”一詞在嚴羽《滄浪詩話．詩辨》中歷來爭議頗多。考鏡佛教禪宗與古代詩學語境，所謂“分限”多指範園有大小、境界有高低以及程度有深淺等不同，而嚴羽《詩辨》中“分限”與“悟”的關係也應釐定爲“悟有淺深、有分限”。與此相應，嚴羽的“妙悟”理論可劃分爲由深到淺、由高到低的四個等級六個層次。其中，漢魏爲“不假悟”；“謝靈運至盛唐諸公”爲“透撤之悟”；“大曆以還之詩”“晚唐之詩”“本朝蘇黃以下諸家”雖同爲“一知半解之悟”，但三者依次遞降；“熟參無見”爲“終不悟”。

Due to variations in textual transmission and the lack of thorough investigation into Buddhist etymology, the term “Limits” in Yan Yu’s Canglang Shihua: Shibian has long been a subject of debate. Examining the contexts of Buddhist Chan (Zen) and classical poetics, “boundaries” generally refers to differences in scope, levels of realization, and degrees of profundity. The relationship between “boundaries” and “insight” in Yan Yu’s Shibian should thus be understood as “insight varies in depth, and is conditioned by boundaries.”

Accordingly, Yan Yu’s theory of “Miao Wu” (Wondrous Enlightenment) can be divided into hierarchical levels and gradations, ranging from profound …