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2023

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Unlocking The Potential Of Sustainable Low-Cobalt Cathodes For Lithium-Ion Battery Applications, Temitayo Ojuetimi Ikuerowo Jan 2023

Unlocking The Potential Of Sustainable Low-Cobalt Cathodes For Lithium-Ion Battery Applications, Temitayo Ojuetimi Ikuerowo

Theses and Dissertations

The pursuit of effective energy storage solutions, essential for the progress of renewable integration, electric cars, and grid-scale applications, has resulted in the popularity of lithium-ionbatteries. However, the high cost and environmental concerns associated with cobalt, a key component in the cathode, limits widespread adoption. Therefore, to address these issues whilst also increasing the capacity of current technologies, research has gone into the development of Nickel (Ni)-rich and Co-poor or Co-free materials for lithium-ion battery applications; however, the impacts of lower cobalt levels in these materials are not fully understood. This study investigates the impact of low cobalt doping levels …

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Application Of Blockchain Technology And Integration Of Differential Privacy: Issues In E-Health Domains, David Isie Jan 2023

Application Of Blockchain Technology And Integration Of Differential Privacy: Issues In E-Health Domains, David Isie

Theses and Dissertations

A systematic and comprehensive review of critical applications of Blockchain Technology with Differential Privacy integration lies within privacy and security enhancement. This paper aims to highlight the research issues in the e-Health domain (e.g., EMR) and to review the current research directions in Differential Privacy integration with Blockchain Technology.Firstly, the current state of concerns in the e-Health domain are identified as follows: (a) healthcare information poses a high level of security and privacy concerns due to its sensitivity; (b) due to vulnerabilities surrounding the healthcare system, a data breach is common and poses a risk for attack by an adversary; …

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Meteorological Drivers Of Blowing Snow Events At Arm North Slope Alaska Site, Talia Dawn Kurtz Jan 2023

Meteorological Drivers Of Blowing Snow Events At Arm North Slope Alaska Site, Talia Dawn Kurtz

Theses and Dissertations

Blowing snow is common in polar regions. Blowing snow and associated sublimation influence the surface energy budget and surface mass balance. For example, it is believed to play a critical role in the evolution of Arctic sea-thickness by reducing the amount of snow accumulated on the sea-ice surface, which is a pressing issue with the Arctic Amplification. Currently, most models do not include blowing snow as there has not been widespread validation of blowing snow parameterizations. Fortunately, the Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM) North Slope Alaska (NSA) site located in Utqiaġvik, Alaska contains instrumentation that allows for the detection of this …

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Valuation Of Potential Pumped Hydro Energy Storage Projects Based On Known Economic And Service Criteria, Seth Lykins Jan 2023

Valuation Of Potential Pumped Hydro Energy Storage Projects Based On Known Economic And Service Criteria, Seth Lykins

Theses and Dissertations

Clean and sustainable energy sources must comprise a greater share of the global energy portfolio in the future, in order to support a growing population while reducing the anthropogenic effects of traditional energy production. Solar and wind-based generation methods, frontrunners of the energy transition, are intermittent by nature. This presents a challenge in the effort to replace dispatchable fossil fuels with a chiefly renewable energy portfolio. Yet this challenge can be met with appropriate storage, which must be scalable, reliable, sustainable, and financially feasible through implementation of multiple services. Pumped hydro energy storage systems (PHESS), with its colossal scale and …

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Empowering Educators: Enhancing Teacher Efficacy In Rural Schools Through Innovative Professional Development For Teachers Of English Language Learners, Jody Lynn Maanum Jan 2023

Empowering Educators: Enhancing Teacher Efficacy In Rural Schools Through Innovative Professional Development For Teachers Of English Language Learners, Jody Lynn Maanum

Theses and Dissertations

The National Center for Educational Statistics’ [NCES] 2021 annual report indicates that there are currently over five million English Language Learners (ELLs) in U.S. schools. Of additional importance to this statistic is that the growing wave of diversity is no longer primarily settling in the larger metropolitan areas, but ELLs and their families are more recently finding themselves in geographically rural areas. The school systems in these rural areas face unique challenges in meeting the needs of the growing diverse populations, with many teachers in these systems lacking best practice knowledge and the confidence and competence needed to meet the …

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Evaluation Of Water Content Measurement Model 3000 Probe (Wcm-3000) Using The Nasa Impacts Dataset, Jennifer Rose Moore Jan 2023

Evaluation Of Water Content Measurement Model 3000 Probe (Wcm-3000) Using The Nasa Impacts Dataset, Jennifer Rose Moore

Theses and Dissertations

The introduction of the Water Content Measurement probe (WCM-3000) onto the NASA P-3 aircraft during the NASA Investigation of Microphysics and Precipitation for Atlantic Coast-Threatening Snowstorms (IMPACTS) 2022 and 2023 field campaign raises opportunity for measurement comparisons between liquid water content instruments. Instrument comparisons are done between the King hot-wire probe, the WCM-3000, and the Cloud Droplet Probe (CDP) using the IMPACTS 2023 field campaign data. Case studies are analyzed in three cloud conditions; liquid water clouds with droplets less than 50 µm, supercooled liquid water clouds with droplets less than 50 µm, and ice phase clouds. The WCM-3000 and …

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Effects Of Climate Extremes On Snow Processes And Modeled Recharge To A Shallow Aquifer, Julian Giannini Niewiaroski Jan 2023

Effects Of Climate Extremes On Snow Processes And Modeled Recharge To A Shallow Aquifer, Julian Giannini Niewiaroski

Theses and Dissertations

The Northern Great Plains (NGP), which can be broadly defined as the portion of the Great Plains north of Nebraska, undergoes decadal-scale climatic change in the form of drought and deluge cycles. These are broad, long-term cycles, that are not always well-defined, as has been the case recently. Since 2012, there have been one or two dry years followed by one or two wet years. Conversely, before 2012, there was a well-defined wet period between 2005-2011, preceded by a well-defined dry period from 1999-2004. Understanding drought-deluge cycles is critical to predicting aquifer recharge and groundwater retention, which directly affects how …

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Obtaining The Transfer Function Of A Camera Mount Using Ansys And Matlab, Ikechukwu Stanley Nwade Jan 2023

Obtaining The Transfer Function Of A Camera Mount Using Ansys And Matlab, Ikechukwu Stanley Nwade

Theses and Dissertations

In this thesis, the transfer function of a camera mount is obtained using ANSYS and MATLAB. In a heads-up display (HUD) application, achieving precise image registration requires careful consideration of the camera's position relative to the vehicle. Vibrations can alter the camera's position, with tilt being the most impactful due to its increased displacement effect as objects are further away. This research tackles vibration by predicting the position of the camera using transfer function. To determine the transfer function for complex structures, such as camera mounts, this study aims to first establish a transfer function for a simpler model, like …

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An Exploration Of The Meaning Of The Phenomenon Of Hope, In The Context Of Hopelessness, For Rural Frontline Registered Nurses In South Dakota, North Dakota, And Minnesota During The Covid-19 Pandemic, Stephanie Jean Orth Jan 2023

An Exploration Of The Meaning Of The Phenomenon Of Hope, In The Context Of Hopelessness, For Rural Frontline Registered Nurses In South Dakota, North Dakota, And Minnesota During The Covid-19 Pandemic, Stephanie Jean Orth

Theses and Dissertations

Background & Purpose: This study’s purpose was to understand what the phenomenon of hope meant to rural critical access hospital RNs in three Midwest states, and what gave them hope during the COVID-19 pandemic. The full scope of the pandemic on the rural nursing workforce is unknown. Prior research has shown that hope can be a positive tool for sustaining psychological well-being, setting and achieving goals, and can facilitate coping (Collins, Bhathal, Field, Larlee, Paje, & Young, 2018; Hacimusalar, Kahve, & Aydin, 2020; Persell, 2016; Snyder, 1995). Methods: Ten participants were interviewed using a semi-structured, interpretive hermeneutic phenomenological approach. van …

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Experimental Investigation Of Thermal Maturation Processes Of Bakken Formation And Their Impact On Organic Matter And Mechanical Properties, Chioma Judith Onwumelu Jan 2023

Experimental Investigation Of Thermal Maturation Processes Of Bakken Formation And Their Impact On Organic Matter And Mechanical Properties, Chioma Judith Onwumelu

Theses and Dissertations

Early development of the Bakken Petroleum System recognized the significance of source rock maturation and the onset of oil generation in determining the geographic limits of production. This research project aims to confirm the role of thermal maturation as the dominant mechanism in controlling the oil generation of the Bakken Shale. Additionally, the purpose ofthis research is to test the influence of thermal maturation on the geochemical and mechanical properties of the Bakken Shale. To conduct these investigations, samples from 2-BRENDEN 9-33 1-M, a well in the North Dakota part of the Williston Basin that has experienced the least thermal …

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Application Of Artificial Treatment Wetland Systems In The English Coulee, Michael Anthony Rosati Jan 2023

Application Of Artificial Treatment Wetland Systems In The English Coulee, Michael Anthony Rosati

Theses and Dissertations

Artificial treatment wetlands are commonly used for treating urban stormwater runoffand surface waters affected by agricultural runoff. While this method is well-established, its effectiveness can vary based on environmental, design, and hydraulic factors. In Grand Forks, ND, the English Coulee, a hydraulically altered class III stream, is currently experiencing elevated nutrient pollution, specifically nitrates and phosphates. Implementing a floating treatment wetland (FTW) system in the English Coulee is a potential solution. This paper analyzes the feasibility and requirements for a 4.64 ha FTW to achieve a minimum of 50% nutrient removal, utilizing comprehensive modeling approaches. Through HEC-HMS and HECRAS simulations, …

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Gay Or Nay? Gaydar Snap Judgement Accuracy Rates Among Queer And Straight Cis-Men, Alyssa Noelle Rowland Jan 2023

Gay Or Nay? Gaydar Snap Judgement Accuracy Rates Among Queer And Straight Cis-Men, Alyssa Noelle Rowland

Theses and Dissertations

The validity of gaydar as a psychological construct has been evaluated in the LGBQIA2S+ literature with general agreement that an unclearly specified subset of the population has a better than chance probability of detecting the sexuality of others. The real-world implications of such a skill could be far-reaching. Gaydar could assist people identify and attract potential mates or life partners. It could also provide protection against the risks posed by making advances on an individual (e.g., a heterosexual man) who could react violently. The current study examined factors that impacted cis-male gaydar hit rates for queer and heterosexual targets in …

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Attitudes, Subjective Norms, And Perceived Behavioral Control Of Perianesthesia Nurses' Intentions To Engage In Mindful Self-Care, Brenda Sanya Jan 2023

Attitudes, Subjective Norms, And Perceived Behavioral Control Of Perianesthesia Nurses' Intentions To Engage In Mindful Self-Care, Brenda Sanya

Theses and Dissertations

Study Purpose and Design: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions to engage in mindful self-care among nurses working in the perianesthesia setting. The study utilized cross-sectional design and was guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior. Methods: Modified Theory of Planned Behavior questionnaire and Mindful Self Care Scale were utilized for data collection among 85 perianesthesia nurses using a survey through the American Society of PeriAnesthesia Nurses (ASPAN). Findings: Regression analyses demonstrated that attitude (β=0.51, t=5.63, p=0.001) and self-compassion and purpose (β=0.29, t=2.54, p=0.013) were significant factors …

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Conducting Fog Research And Abatement Using Unmanned Aircraft Systems (Uas), Michael Douglas Willette Jan 2023

Conducting Fog Research And Abatement Using Unmanned Aircraft Systems (Uas), Michael Douglas Willette

Theses and Dissertations

The tremendous safety and monetary impacts of long-duration fog events continue to spur interest in its anthropogenic dissipation. With the emergence of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) platform and the development of miniaturized atmospheric sensors, more efficient methods of fog research and anthropogenic fog dispersal may be achieved. The feasibility of a supercooled fog dispersal project in the Red River Valley and the efficacy of using the UAS platform to acquire in-situ fog microphysical data are explored. A 30-year climatology of the Red River Valley indicates increased supercooled fog potential between early November through early April, peaking in March. Five …

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Building Personal Friendships In A Multicultural Society, Fatemah Almadani Jan 2023

Building Personal Friendships In A Multicultural Society, Fatemah Almadani

Theses and Dissertations

Friendship ranks highly among the social issues that develop and creates a stable andprosperous society. However, people tend to focus more on individuals who share social values while making friends. On the other hand, in a multicultural society, people work, leave, or learn together to share such values. The diversity of the origin of people living in the United States (US), especially in major cities, varies significantly regarding race, ethnicity, and religion, resulting in super-diverse urban setups. This study examined the multicultural friendship between international Arab students studying in the US and their American counterparts. The study was guided by …

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Changes In Crop Diversity And Associated Drivers In The Red River Of The North Valley, Zinat Ara Jan 2023

Changes In Crop Diversity And Associated Drivers In The Red River Of The North Valley, Zinat Ara

Theses and Dissertations

Background: Crop diversity is a part of the overall biodiversity of the world and includes the diversity of crops produced to feed humankind and those associated with domesticated animal grazing or feeding. A decline in diversity can reduce productivity of the farmlands by degrading soil health and introduction of plant diseases. So, it is crucial to study crop diversity and find the causes behind it to impede catastrophic consequences.Objectives: The purpose of this study was to explore changes in crop diversity and the factors affecting the changes in diversity by county and survey townships in the Red River of the …

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Dynamics Of Flood Flow In Red River Basin, Vida Atashi Jan 2023

Dynamics Of Flood Flow In Red River Basin, Vida Atashi

Theses and Dissertations

In recent decades, flooding has become a major issue in many areas of the Upper Midwest. Many rivers and streams in the region had considerable increases in mean annual peak flows during this period, which was driven by a combination of natural factors including discharge synchrony with the spring thaw, ice jams, glacial lake plain, and a decrease in gradient downstream. The Red River of the North is a prominent river in the United States and Canada's Upper Midwest. It flows from its headwaters in Minnesota and North Dakota to Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba. The river is well-known for its …

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Ccl2 Suppression In Lewis Lung Carcinoma Model Enhances Host Survival And Immune Response In The Tumor Microenvironment, Nivedita Biswas Jan 2023

Ccl2 Suppression In Lewis Lung Carcinoma Model Enhances Host Survival And Immune Response In The Tumor Microenvironment, Nivedita Biswas

Theses and Dissertations

CCL2, a chemokine also referred to as monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and small inducible cytokine A, is chemotactic for monocytes. CCL2-induced recruitment of CCR2+Ly6C(hi) monocytes increases vascular permeability CCR2+ endothelium aiding the escape and migration of tumor cells. CCL2 is produced by cancers of varied immunogenicity and augments tumor proliferation and metastasis. Elevated CCL2 expression by tumor cells is linked to poor prognosis.We have previously shown that two bacterially derived superantigens, Staphylococcal enterotoxin G and I (SEG/SEI) stimulate large numbers of T cells in an antigen-independent fashion and promote enhanced survival in the poorly immunogenic B16-F10 melanoma model. Conversely, …

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Applying Human Error Framework To Explore Prevention Strategies For Wrong Surface Events, William Bowers Jan 2023

Applying Human Error Framework To Explore Prevention Strategies For Wrong Surface Events, William Bowers

Theses and Dissertations

Wrong surface events are a serious and ongoing risk to aviation safety in the United States National Airspace System. A wrong surface event occurs when an aircraft lands, departs or attempts to land or depart from a surface other than the intended landing or takeoff, also including aircraft landing at the wrong airport. This research examined the contextual factors that contributed to human error ultimately leading to wrong surface events, assessed the efficacy of technology that can be used to prevent, and aviation professional’s awareness of wrong surface events in order to determine prevention strategies that can reduce occurrences in …

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Spectral Classification Of Eight Stars In Open Cluster Ngc 457, Anthony Braden Jan 2023

Spectral Classification Of Eight Stars In Open Cluster Ngc 457, Anthony Braden

Theses and Dissertations

This project aimed to perform spectral analysis and classification on eight target stars in the open star cluster NGC 457 with the University of North Dakota Space Studies Observatory. Selected targets came from a search in the SIMBAD database with a radius of two arcseconds around the cluster's center. The eight brightest stars in the visual spectrum were chosen, which did not have luminosity classifications. Six observing sessions were performed over two years to maximize data quality, given the unpredictability of terrestrial observations. Spectral data were acquired in both high- and low-resolution mode. The spectral data were calibrated and analyzed …

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Religion-Justified Childhood Maltreatment And Adult Psychological Maladjustment, Hannah Doctor Jan 2023

Religion-Justified Childhood Maltreatment And Adult Psychological Maladjustment, Hannah Doctor

Theses and Dissertations

The perpetrator of religion justified child abuse relies on spiritual beliefs (religious texts, context, or authority) to justify acts of maltreatment. This form of abuse can be manifested in many different contexts including infamous scandals of sexual abuse committed by catholic priests and the physical/sexual/emotional maltreatment occurring at Native American or other boarding schools for troubled youth. Parents and caretakers often claim "to spare the rod is to spoil the child”. Previous research has suggested that maladjustment outcomes after traumatic events are less severe among victims with strong religious beliefs. This study hypothesized that religious justified abuse would be associated …

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Parental Telemental Health Satisfaction During Covid-19, Desiree Giesen Jan 2023

Parental Telemental Health Satisfaction During Covid-19, Desiree Giesen

Theses and Dissertations

The outbreak of Coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) rapidly became a global pandemic in early 2020, forcing the wide spread implementation of social distancing safety precautions. Most mental health services across the United States shifted from traditional in-person services to telemental health (telehealth) in order to safely treat their clients. Using a Grounded Theory theoretical framework, participants were interviewed using a semi-structured format regarding their telehealth experience during COVID-19. Participants were 12 parents whose children had received telehealth services. Themes emerged from their coded responses and were organized into four categories: COVID-19 Impact on Mental Health, Positive Elements of Telehealth, Negative Elements of …

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An Investigation Into Impacts Of Microphysics Parameterization Schemes On Radiation Fog Within A Large Eddy Simulation Framework, To Small Unmanned Aircraft System Operations, Joseph Lafayette Gufford Jan 2023

An Investigation Into Impacts Of Microphysics Parameterization Schemes On Radiation Fog Within A Large Eddy Simulation Framework, To Small Unmanned Aircraft System Operations, Joseph Lafayette Gufford

Theses and Dissertations

Fog is a threat to the operations of small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS). Improved fog forecasting will allow for more timely dissemination of warnings, allowing operators to maximize operational time and to minimize flight cancellations. The impacts of grid spacing and microphysical parameterization were examined to study their influences on fog formation in the Weather Research and Forecasting numerical weather prediction model. An ensemble of forecasts was produced, wherein varying grid spacings (1 km and 0.333 m) were permuted with different microphysics schemes (single and double moment) for two different fog events. It was found that sub-kilometer grid spacing improved …

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“Blue” Hydrogen & Helium From Flare Gas Of The Bakken Formation Of The Williston Basin, North Dakota: A Novel Process, Martin R. Leipzig Jan 2023

“Blue” Hydrogen & Helium From Flare Gas Of The Bakken Formation Of The Williston Basin, North Dakota: A Novel Process, Martin R. Leipzig

Theses and Dissertations

Is it possible to curtail flaring in the Williston basin while simultaneously sequestering carbon dioxide, harvesting economic quantities of natural gas liquids, helium and other valuable products? Utilizing a novel approach described here, diatomic hydrogen and elemental helium, as well as other products, can be profitably extracted from the gas streams produced from horizontal, hydraulically-fractured Middle Bakken Member wells, in the Devonian-Mississippian Bakken Formation of the Williston Basin, North Dakota, USA.However, there are two vastly different methods employed to extract these gasses. Hydrogen is harvested from the gas stream by physically reforming methane (CH4) through the application of one or …

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A Data Driven Approach To Optimize Re-Fracturing Operations In The Williston Basin, Joshua Kroschel Jan 2023

A Data Driven Approach To Optimize Re-Fracturing Operations In The Williston Basin, Joshua Kroschel

Theses and Dissertations

Because of the recent paradigm shift focusing heavily on cost minimization, many operators are now re-developing existing assets at much lower costs instead of developing newly drilled wells. Although it may seem that the hydraulic fracturing process on a well would be easier after initial stimulation, this is not usually the case and is often more difficult. Being able to identify high margin effects of treatment parameters will help engineers design hydraulic fracturing treatments to minimize average STP (STP) and minimize costs. This research develops a feature engineered multivariate regression model that identifies several high margin areas for STP reduction. …

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Determining The Optimum Ground Coal Bottom Ash Content For Sustainable Concrete Infrastructure, Sandip Poudel Jan 2023

Determining The Optimum Ground Coal Bottom Ash Content For Sustainable Concrete Infrastructure, Sandip Poudel

Theses and Dissertations

Cement production requires a high amount of energy and natural resources which has a high impact on the environment due to harmful gas emissions. Coal bottom ash (CBA) or Coal Boiler Slag (CBS) is the byproduct of coal-fired power plants that has pozzolanic properties. CBA or CBS can be mechanically ground to obtain Ground Coal Bottom Ash (GCBA) or Ground Coal Bottom Slag (GCBS). GCBA has the potential to replace cement in concrete which will reduce the waste in landfills, make economic benefits, preserve natural resources, and reduce health hazards. This research was performed to determine the optimum GCBA or …

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Machine Learning And Data Mining To Validate The Prognostics And Predictive Breast Cancer Biomarkers On A Large Racially Diverse Population, Kalli Scheafer Jan 2023

Machine Learning And Data Mining To Validate The Prognostics And Predictive Breast Cancer Biomarkers On A Large Racially Diverse Population, Kalli Scheafer

Theses and Dissertations

Breast cancer biomarkers have great potential in providing clinicians more individualized information about the composition and outcomes of a patient’s breast cancer. However, many breast cancer biomarkers have not been evaluated on a large scale or in groups of patients with diverse characteristics, leading to difficulty in their translation to having an impact on patients. In this study, we compile a large, pooled breast cancer patient data cohort and evaluate breast cancer biomarkers on patients with diverse characteristics. Biomarkers are found to have varying expression patterns within the different breast cancer subtypes, validating the need to evaluate biomarkers on patient …

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Studying Phase And Morphology Of Hydrocarbon Petrochemicals In Inorganic And Organic Microdroplets Using An Electrodynamic Balance, Fafa Tackie-Otoo Jan 2023

Studying Phase And Morphology Of Hydrocarbon Petrochemicals In Inorganic And Organic Microdroplets Using An Electrodynamic Balance, Fafa Tackie-Otoo

Theses and Dissertations

Wastewater from the petroleum industry contains large amounts of inorganic salts, hydrocarbons, mercaptans, oil and grease, phenols, and other organic chemicals. All these compounds can be found in highly complex solutions in the petroleum industry’s discharged water, and there is no common treatment method, which precludes reuse paths in other sectors such as irrigation of farmland. In order to reuse produced water, the water must be treated and these harmful chemicals must be removed. To treat and potentially reuse oily waste outside the energy sector, researchers typically use membrane technology, photocatalytic degradation, oxidation processes, electrochemical catalysis, and other methods. The …

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Exploration Of Early Career Teachers’ Perspectives On Preservice Training, Classroom Experiences, And Retention, Ashley Smalley Jan 2023

Exploration Of Early Career Teachers’ Perspectives On Preservice Training, Classroom Experiences, And Retention, Ashley Smalley

Theses and Dissertations

To promote the advancement of teacher recruitment, retention, and reduce attrition, K-12 teachers need to be fully prepared for the complex nature of being in a classroom, a classroom filled with students of all types. There is a unique nature to education and one must recognize the complexity of each individual student. The context of this study explores early career teachers’ perspectives on their preparedness for teaching. This research examines teachers’ perspectives in their first to fifth years of teaching who graduated from a North Dakota college. Each participant answered 13 questions regarding their perspectives on the preparation they received …

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Effect Of Deicing Chemicals And Fly Ash On Durability And Mechanical Properties Of Concrete, Joseph M. Useldinger-Hoefs Jan 2023

Effect Of Deicing Chemicals And Fly Ash On Durability And Mechanical Properties Of Concrete, Joseph M. Useldinger-Hoefs

Theses and Dissertations

Deicing chemicals, such as Sodium Chloride (NaCl), lowers the freezing point of water, resulting in less skidding, less hydroplaning, and more friction on roadways. NaCl has limitations regarding its deicing capabilities; therefore, a supplement should be used to decrease corrosion and aid in lowering the freezing point of water. Incorporating AMP in NaCl brine aids in bonding to the road’s surface and further lowers the water’s freezing point. This study was conducted to explore the optimum solution of AMP and Sodium Nitrite (NaNO2) and the impact 20% fly ash has on durability. Hardened properties were used to compare the impact …

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