Digital Commons Network^™

Experimental Inoculation Of Coyotes With Mycobacterium Bovis Susceptibility And Shedding, Shylo R. Johnson, Mike R. Dunbar, Lorene Martinez, Robert L. Jones, Richard Bowen, Paul Gordy

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Several wildlife species have tested positive for bovine tuberculosis in Michigan and may potentially transmit the disease to other animals. Coyotes have the highest known prevalence in the endemic area and thus, our objective was to investigate the shedding of Mycobacterium bovis by coyotes. Four coyotes were orally inoculated with 1 ml of 1 x 10⁵ CFU/ml of M. bovis. Oral and nasal swabs, and feces were collected regularly and tested by culture. Fecal samples were also tested by exposing guinea pigs to the coyotes' feces. All animals were necropsied to determine if infection occurred. All swabs, feces …

White-Tailed Deer Herbivory And Timber Harvesting Rates: Implications For Regeneration Success, Brad F. Miller, Tyler A. Campbell, Benjamin R. Laseter, W. Mark Ford, Karl V. Miller

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Herbivory by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can affect forest regeneration. Typical measures to ensure forest regeneration have included physical barriers or direct manipulation of deer densities. However, altering silvicultural practices to provide abundant deer forage has not been tested thoroughly. We examined browse species preferences and changes in herbivory rates in 1–6 year old regeneration areas from 2001 to 2004 in the central Appalachians on the MeadWestvaco Wildlife and Ecosystem Research Forest in West Virginia. Woody vegetation reached the maximum plot coverage by the 4th growing season. However, the establishment of less abundant woody species, such as northern …

Declining Mortality In American Crow (Corvus Brachyrhynchos) Following Natural West Nile Virus Infection, Lisa M. Reed, Michael A. Johansson, Nicholas Panella, Robert Mclean, Terry Creekmore, Rose Puelle, Nicholas Komar

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) is known to suffer 100% mortality from infection with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus (WNV). Following the initial detection of WNV in North America in 1999, we measured prevalence of WNV-reactive antibodies (‘‘seroprevalence”) in free-ranging American and fish crows (Corvus ossifragus) of central New Jersey after each transmission season through 2005. In 2002, seroprevalence in American crow juveniles increased to 14% from the 5% of the previous year, potentially indicating increased survival in this species. Using the annual seroprevalence measurements and the number of human West Nile …

Feasibility Of Infectious Prion Digestion Using Mild Conditions And Commercial Subtilisin, John L. Pilona, Paul B. Nash, Terry Arver, Don Hoglund, Kurt C. Vercauteren

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Two serine protease enzymes, subtilisin 309 and subtilisin 309-v,were used to digest brain homogenates containing high levels of prion infectivity using mildly alkaline conditions to investigate prion decontamination methods. To establish that PrP^res infectivity was eliminated, we utilized the Rocky Mountain Laboratory (RML) mouse-adapted scrapie model system for bioassay. Only one digestion condition (subtilisin 309 at 138mAU/ml, 55 ◦C and 14 h digestion time pH 7.9) was considered to be highly relevant statistically (P < 0.001) compared to control, with 52% of challenged mice surviving until the end of the study period. In contrast, treatment of PrP^res by autoclaving at 134 ◦C or treatment with hypochlorite at a concentration of 20,000ppm completely protected mice from prionosis. Further, in vitro assays suggest …

Eight Polymorphic Microsatellite Loci Developed And Characterized From Townsend’S Big-Eared Bat, Corynorhinus Townsendii, Antoinette J. Piaggio, Katie Erin G. Miller, Marjorie D. Matocq, Susan L. Perkins

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Two of the five subspecies of the western big-eared bat, Corynorhinus townsendii, are listed as federally endangered with the remaining three being of conservation concern. Knowing the degree of connectivity among populations would aid in the establishment of sound conservation and management plans for this taxon. For this purpose, we have developed and characterized eight polymorphic microsatellite markers.

Experimental Infection Of Cliff Swallows (Petrochelidon Pyrrhonota) With Varying Doses Of West Nile Virus, Paul T. Oesterle, Nicole M. Nemeth, Kaci K. Vandalen, Heather Sullivan, Kevin T. Bentler, Ginger R. Young, Robert G. Mclean, Larry Clark, Cynthia Smeraski, Jeffrey S. Hall

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) were inoculated with differing doses of West Nile virus (WNV) to evaluate their potential role as reservoir hosts in nature. Swallows often nest in large colonies in habitats and months associated with high mosquito abundance and early WNV transmission in North America. Additionally, cliff swallow diet consists of insects, including mosquitoes, leading to an additional potential route of WNV infection. The average peak viremia titer among infected cliff swallows was 10^6.3 plaque-forming units (PFU)/mL serum and the reservoir competence index was 0.34. There was no correlation between dose and probability of becoming infected …

Severity Of Child Sexual Abuse And Revictimization: The Mediating Role Of Coping And Trauma Symptoms, Michelle A. Fortier, David Dilillo, Terri L. Messman-Moore, James Peugh, Kathleen A. Denardi, Kathryn J. Gaffey

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Child sexual abuse (CSA) has consistently been associated with the use of avoidant coping; these coping methods have been associated with increased trauma symptoms, which have, in turn, been linked to increased risk for adult sexual revictimization. Given these previous findings, the purpose of the current study was to test a model that conceptualized the relationships among these variables. Specifically, CSA severity was conceptualized as leading to the use of avoidant coping, which was proposed to lead to maintenance of trauma symptoms, which would, in turn, impact severity of revictimization indirectly. This comprehensive model was tested in a cross-sectional study …

Impulsivity And Cigarette Craving: Differences Across Subtypes, Neal Doran, Jessica Werth Cook, Dennis E. Mcchargue, Bonnie Spring

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Rationale: Cigarette smoking has been linked to a number of personality characteristics, including impulsivity. Smokers tend to endorse high levels of impulsivity, and more impulsive smokers have greater difficulty quitting, but little is known about potential explanatory mechanisms. Although indirect evidence suggests craving as a candidate mechanism, direct evidence has been mixed.
Materials and methods: This study assessed whether specific aspects of impulsivity (sensation seeking, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and urgency) were associated with cue-induced craving. Regular smokers (n= 60; 50% female) were exposed to a smoking cue and a neutral cue in a repeated measure …

Sedation And Disruption Of Maternal Motivation Underlie The Disruptive Effects Of Antipsychotic Treatment On Rat Maternal Behavior, Changjiu Zhao, Ming Li

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

The behavioral mechanisms underlying antipsychotic-induced maternal behavior deficits were examined in the present study. Different groups of postpartum rats were treated with haloperidol (0.1 mg/kg), clozapine (10.0 mg/kg), chlordiazepoxide (5.0 mg/kg, an anxiolytic) or vehicle (0.9% saline) on Days 4 and 6 postpartum and their maternal behaviors were tested under either pup-separation (e.g. pups were removed from their mothers for 4 h before testing) or no-pup-separation condition. Maternal behavior and drug-induced sedation were further tested for 3 days from Day 8 to 12 postpartum. Results show that pup-separation, which putatively increases maternal motivation, did significantly shorten clozapine-elongated pup approach latency, …

Daily Negative Mood Affects Fasting Glucose In Type 2 Diabetes, Marilyn M. Skaff, Joseph T. Mullan, David M. Almeida, Lesa Hoffman, Umesh Masharani, David C. Mohr, Lawrence Fisher

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Objective—To examine the relationship between mood and blood glucose in a 21 day daily diary study.

Design—During a home visit, information was gathered from two hundred six persons with type 2 diabetes regarding demographics, disease characteristics and treatment, and depressive symptoms. They had blood drawn at a laboratory, yielding HbA1C. The participants were then telephoned each evening for 21 days and were asked about their positive and negative mood during the past 24 hours. They also tested their blood glucose upon rising in the morning.

Main Outcome Measures—The main outcomes measures were positive and negative affect and fasting glucose.

Results—Multilevel …

Low-Level Lead Exposure And Contingency-Based Responding In Preschoolers: An Exploratory Study, Melanie Mcdiarmid Nelson, Kimberly A. Espy

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Two reversal paradigm tasks (spatial reversal and spatial reversal with irrelevant color cues) originally designed to assess contingency-based responding in primates were adapted for use with 139 preschool children with a mean peak blood lead level (BLL) of 4.2 μg/dl (SD = 2.2). Sixty-nine children with BLL ≥ 5 μg/dl and 70 children with BLL of < 5 μg/dl were included. Results indicated that preschool children with low-level lead exposure take longer to learn associations than preschool children with very low levels of lead exposure, and this difference cannot be attributed to increased distractibility or perseverative responding. These results support the use of these measures to assess specific cognitive functions in preschool children.

Lack Of Efficacy Of Citalopram In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders And High Levels Of Repetitive Behavior: Citalopram Ineffective In Children With Autism, Bryan H. King, Eric Hollander, Linmarie Sikich Md, James T. Mccracken Md, Lawrence Scahill Msn, Phd, Joel D. Bregman Md, Craig L. Donnelly Md, Evdokia Anagnostou Md, Kimberly Dukes Phd, Lisa Sullivan Phd, Deborah Hirtz Md, Ann Wagner Phd, Louise Ritz Mba, Arthur C. Maerlender, Staart Psychopharmacology Network

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Context—Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are widely prescribed for children with autism spectrum disorders.

Objectives—To determine the efficacy and safety of citalopram hydrobromide therapy for repetitive behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders.

Design—National Institutes of Health–sponsored randomized controlled trial.

Setting—Six academic centers, including Mount Sinai School of Medicine, North Shore–Long Island Jewish Health System, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of California at Los Angeles, Yale University, and Dartmouth Medical School.

Participants—One hundred forty-nine volunteers 5 to 17 years old (mean [SD] age, 9.4 [3.1] years) were randomized to receive citalopram (n = 73) or placebo (n = …

Early Speech Motor Development: Cognitive And Linguistic Considerations, Ignatius S. B. Nip, Jordan R. Green, David B. Marx

Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders: Faculty Publications

This longitudinal investigation examines developmental changes in orofacial movements occurring during the early stages of communication development. The goals were to identify developmental trends in early speech motor performance and to determine how these trends differ across orofacial behaviors thought to vary in cognitive and linguistic demands (i.e., silent spontaneous movements, babble, and first words). Movements of the lower lip and jaw were recorded using a three-dimensional motion capture system. Twenty-four infants were observed every 3 months, from 9 to 21 months of age. Jaw and lower lip speed, and lower lip range of movement increased with age. Silent spontaneous …

Central Pattern Generation Involved In Oral And Respiratory Control For Feeding In The Term Infant, Steven M. Barlow

Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders: Faculty Publications

Purpose of review—Drinking and eating are essential skills for survival and benefit from the coordination of several pattern generating networks and their musculoskeletal effectors to achieve safe swallows. Oral-pharyngo-esophageal motility develops during infancy and early childhood, and is influenced by various factors, including neuromuscular maturation, dietary and postural habits, arousal state, ongoing illnesses, congenital anomalies, and the effects of medical or surgical interventions. Gastroesophageal reflux is frequent in neonates and infants, and its role in neonatal morbidity including dysphagia, chronic lung disease, or apparent life-threatening events is not well understood. This review highlights recent studies aimed at understanding the development …

Oral And Respiratory Control For Preterm Feeding, Steven M. Barlow

Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders: Faculty Publications

Purpose of review—Feeding competency is a frequent and serious challenge to the neonatal intensive care unit survivors and to the physician–provider–parent teams. The urgency of effective assessment and intervention techniques is obviated to promote safe swallow, as attainment of oral feeding for the preterm infant/newborn is one of the prerequisites for hospital discharge. If left unresolved, feeding problems may persist into early childhood and may require management by pediatric gastroenterologists and feeding therapists. This review highlights studies aimed at understanding the motor control and development of nonnutritive and nutritive suck, swallow, and coordination with respiration in preterm populations.

Recent findings—Functional …

Nonparticipatory Stiffness In The Male Perioral Complex, Shin-Ying Chu, Steven M. Barlow, Jaehoon Lee

Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders: Faculty Publications

Purpose—The objective of this study was to extend previous published findings in the authors’ laboratory using a new automated technology to quantitatively characterize nonparticipatory perioral stiffness in healthy male adults.

Method—Quantitative measures of perioral stiffness were sampled during a nonparticipatory task using a computer-controlled linear motor servo programmed to impose a series of tensile displacements over a span of approximately 24 mm at the oral angle in 20 healthy young male adults. Perioral electromyograms were simultaneously sampled to confirm nonparticipation or passive muscle state. Perioral stiffness, derived as a quotient from resultant force (ΔF) and oral span (ΔX), was modeled …

Gestational Risks And Psychiatric Disorders Among Indigenous Adolescents, Les B. Whitbeck, Devan M. Crawford

Department of Sociology: Faculty Publications

This study reports on the effects maternal prenatal binge drinking, cigarette smoking, drug use, and pregnancy and birth complications on meeting criteria for psychiatric disorders at ages 10–12 and 13–15 years among 546 Indigenous adolescents from a single culture in the northern Midwest and Canada. Adolescent DSM-IV psychiatric disorders were assessed with the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-Revised (DISC-R). Results indicate that maternal behaviors when pregnant have significant effects on adolescent psychiatric disorders even when controlling for age and gender of adolescent, family per capita income, living in a single mother household, and adolescent reports of mother’s positive parenting.

Harriet Martineau And Ireland, Brian Conway, Michael R. Hill

Department of Sociology: Faculty Publications

The Victorian sociologist-novelist Harriet Martineau visited Ireland on two different occasions, first in 1832 and again, twenty years later, in 1852, just six years after the Great Famine of 1846, when the country was still very much visibly affected by that event. Her latter journey covered some 1,200 miles and encompassed all four provinces that make up the island of Ireland, north and south. Martineau was not the first foreign visitor to nineteenth century Ireland, of course, but she provided one of the few genuinely sociological interpretations during this time period. This chapter, then, examines Martineau's Irish writings and her …

Deer Responses To Repellent Stimuli, Bruce A. Kimball, Jimmy D. Taylor Ii, Kelly R. Perry, Christina Capelli

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Four repellents representing different modes of action (neophobia, irritation, conditioned aversion, and flavor modification) were tested with captive white-tailed deer in a series of two-choice tests. Two diets differing significantly in energy content were employed in choice tests so that incentive to consume repellent-treated diets varied according to which diet was treated. When the high energy diet was treated with repellents, only blood (flavor modification) and capsaicin (irritation) proved highly effective. Rapid habituation to the odor of meat and bone meal (neophobia) presented in a sachet limited its effectiveness as a repellent under conditions with a high feeding motivation. Thiram, …

Feasibility Of Infectious Prion Digestion Using Mild Conditions And Commercial Subtilisin, John L. Pilon, Paul B. Nash, Terry Arver, Don Hoglund, Kurt C. Vercauteren

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Two serine protease enzymes, subtilisin 309 and subtilisin 309-v,were used to digest brain homogenates containing high levels of prion infectivity using mildly alkaline conditions to investigate prion decontamination methods. To establish that PrP^res infectivity was eliminated, we utilized the Rocky Mountain Laboratory (RML) mouse-adapted scrapie model system for bioassay. Only one digestion condition (subtilisin 309 at 138mAU/ml, 55^◦C and 14 h digestion time pH 7.9) was considered to be highly relevant statistically (P < 0.001) compared to control, with 52% of challenged mice surviving until the end of the study period. In contrast, treatment of PrP^res by autoclaving at 134^◦C or treatment with hypochlorite at a concentration of 20,000ppm completely protected mice from prionosis. Further, in …

Prevalence Of West Nile Virus In Migratory Birds During Spring And Fall Migration, Robert J. Dusek, Robert G. Mclean, Laura D. Kramer, Sonya R. Ubico, Alan P. Dupuis Ii, Gregory D. Ebel, Stephen C. Guptill

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

To investigate the role of migratory birds in the dissemination of West Nile virus (WNV), we measured the prevalence of infectious WNV and specific WNV neutralizing antibodies in birds, principally Passeriformes, during spring and fall migrations in the Atlantic and Mississippi flyways from 2001–2003. Blood samples were obtained from 13,403 birds, representing 133 species. Specific WNV neutralizing antibody was detected in 254 resident and migratory birds, representing 39 species, and was most commonly detected in northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis ) (9.8%, N = 762) and gray catbirds ( Dumetella carolinensis ) (3.2%, N = 3188). West Nile virus viremias …

Using Packrat Middens To Assess Grazing Effects On Vegetation Change, J. Fisher, Ken L. Cole, R.S. Anderson

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Research on grazing effects usually compares the same sites through time or grazed and ungrazed sites over the same time period. Both approaches are complicated in arid environments where grazing can have a long undocumented history and landscapes can be spatially heterogenous. This work employs both approaches simultaneously by comparing grazed and ungrazed samples through both time and space using fossil plant macrofossils and pollen from packrat middens. A series of 27 middens, spanning from 995 yr BP to the present, were collected from Glen Canyon in southeastern Utah, USA. These middens detail vegetation change just prior to, and following, …

Widespread Occurrence Of Intersex In Black Basses (Micropterus Spp.) From U.S. Rivers, 1995–2004, Jo Ellen Hinck, Vicki S. Blazer, Christopher J. Schmitt, Diana M. Papoulias, Donald E. Tillitt

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Intersex occurrence in freshwater fishes was evaluated for nine river basins in the United States. Testicular oocytes (predominantly male testes containing female germ cells) were the most pervasive form of intersex observed, even though similar numbers of male (n = 1477) and female (n = 1633) fish were examined. Intersex was found in 3% of the fish collected. The intersex condition was observed in four of the 16 species examined (25%) and in fish from 34 of 111 sites (31%). Intersex was not found in multiple species from the same site but was most prevalent in largemouth bass ( …

Reproductive Health Of Bass In The Potomac, Usa, Drainage: Part 1. Exploring The Effects Of Proximity To Wastewater Treatment Plant Discharge, Luke R. Iwanowicz, Vicki S. Blazer, Christopher P. Guy, Alfred E. Pinkney, John E. Mullican, David A. Alvarez

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Intersex (specifically, testicular oocytes) has been observed in male smallmouth bass (SMB; Micropterus dolomieu) and other centrarchids in the South Branch of the Potomac River, USA, and forks of the Shenandoah River, USA, during the past five years. This condition often is associated with exposure to estrogenic endocrine-disrupting chemicals in some fish species, but such chemicals and their sources have yet to be identified in the Potomac. In an attempt to better understand the plausible causes of this condition, we investigated the reproductive health of bass sampled up- and downstream of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent point sources on …

Spatial Analysis Of Pallid Sturgeon Scaphirhynchus Albus Distribution In The Missouri River, South Dakota, B. D. Spindler, S. R. Chipps, R. A. Klumb, Michael C. Wimberly

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Movement and distribution of the endangered pallid sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus has generally been documented using radio telemetry. However, because of the time and cost involved in tracking individual fish (i.e. small sample size), it is often difficult to evaluate spatial distribution of groups of fish over long time periods (> 3 years). Standardized sampling for pallid sturgeon, which relies on a variety of gear types, has been conducted on the Missouri River downstream of Fort Randall Dam annually since 2003. Using catch data from 2003 to 2006, the spatial distribution of juvenile pallid sturgeon was evaluated using spatial scan statistics. …

Concentrations Of Cadmium, Cobalt, Lead, Nickel, And Zinc In Blood And Fillets Of Northern Hog Sucker (Hypentelium Nigricans) From Streams Contaminated By Lead–Zinc Mining: Implications For Monitoring, Christopher J. Schmitt, W. G. Brumbaugh, T. W. May

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Lead (Pb) and other metals can accumulate in northern hog sucker (Hypentelium nigricans) and other suckers (Catostomidae), which are harvested in large numbers from Ozark streams by recreational fishers. Suckers are also important in the diets of piscivorous wildlife and fishes. Suckers from streams contaminated by historic Pb–zinc (Zn) mining in southeastern Missouri are presently identified in a consumption advisory because of Pb concentrations. We evaluated blood sampling as a potentially nonlethal alternative to fillet sampling for Pb and other metals in northern hog sucker. Scaled, skin-on, bone-in ‘‘fillet’’ and blood samples were obtained from northern hog suckers (n = …

History Of Wildlife Toxicology, Barnett A. Rattner

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

The field of wildlife toxicology can be traced to

the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Initial

reports included unintentional poisoning of birds from

ingestion of spent lead shot and predator control agents,

alkali poisoning of waterbirds, and die-offs from maritime

oil spills. With the advent of synthetic pesticides in the

1930s and 1940s, effects of DDT and other pesticides were

investigated in free-ranging and captive wildlife. In

response to research findings in the US and UK, and the

publication of Silent Spring in 1962, public debate on the

hazards of pollutants arose and national contaminant

monitoring programs were initiated. …

Content Validity Of Nutrition Diagnostic Term Involuntary Weight Loss, Paula K. Ritter-Gooder, Nancy M. Lewis

Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences: Faculty Publications

Objective The purpose of this study was to validate content of the Nutrition Diagnostic Term NC- 3.2 Involuntary Weight Loss using expert raters.

Design/Subjects This descriptive survey invited all Board Certified Specialists in Gerontological Nutrition (CSG) to participate by mail. An instrument was developed that included the definition, etiologies, and signs and symptoms (s/s) of the diagnosis with items added from literature review. CSG rated how common or characteristic each item is to the diagnosis using a 5 point Likert scale. A weighted response for each item was used to calculate a Diagnostic Content Validity (DCV) score. DCV scores of …

Effects Of Β-Alanine Supplementation And High-Intensity Interval Training On Endurance Performance And Body Composition In Men; A Double-Blind Trial, Abbie E. Smith, Ashley A. Walter, Jennifer L. Graef, Kristina L. Kendall, Jordan R. Moon, Christopher M. Lockwood, David H. Fukuda, Travis W. Beck, Joel T. Cramer, Jeffrey R. Stout

Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Intermittent bouts of high-intensity exercise result in diminished stores of energy substrates, followed by an accumulation of metabolites, promoting chronic physiological adaptations. In addition, β-alanine has been accepted has an effective physiological hydrogen ion (H⁺) buffer. Concurrent high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and β-alanine supplementation may result in greater adaptations than HIIT alone. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of combining β-alanine supplementation with high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on endurance performance and aerobic metabolism in recreationally active college-aged men.

Methods: Forty-six men (Age: 22.2 ± 2.7 yrs; Ht: 178.1 ± 7.4 cm; Wt: …

Acute Effects Of A Thermogenic Nutritional Supplement On Cycling Time To Exhaustion And Muscular Strength In College-Aged Men, Ashley A. Walter, Trent J. Herda, Eric D. Ryan, Pablo B. Costa, Katherine M. Hoge, Travis W. Beck, Jeffrey R. Stout, Joel T. Cramer

Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: The purpose of the present study was to examine the acute effects of a thermogenic nutritional supplement containing caffeine, capsaicin, bioperine, and niacin on muscular strength and endurance performance.

Methods: Twenty recreationally-active men (mean ± SD age = 21.5 ± 1.4 years; stature = 178.2 ± 6.3 cm; mass = 76.5 ± 9.9 kg; VO_{2 PEAK} = 3.05 ± 0.59 L/min^-1) volunteered to participate in this randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. All testing took place over a three-week period, with each of the 3 laboratory visits separated by 7 days (± 2 hours). During the initial …