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Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 1: An Overview Of The Interagency, International Symposium On Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms (Isoc-Hab): Advancing The Scientific Understanding Of Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms, H. Kenneth Hudnell, Quay Dortch, Harold Zenick

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

There is growing evidence that the spatial and temporal incidence of harmful algal blooms is increasing, posing potential risks to human health and ecosystem sustainability. Currently there are no US Federal guidelines, Water Quality Criteria and Standards, or regulations concerning the management of harmful algal blooms. Algal blooms in freshwater are predominantly cyanobacteria, some of which produce highly potent cyanotoxins. The US Congress mandated a Scientific Assessment of Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms in the 2004 reauthorization of the Harmful Algal Blooms and Hypoxia Research and Control Act. To further the scientific understanding of freshwater harmful algal blooms, the US Environmental …

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 35: Risk Assessment Workgroup Report, Joyce Donohue, Jennifer Orme–Zavaleta, Michael Burch, Daniel Dietrich, Belinda Hawkins, Tony Lloyd, Wayne Munns, Jeffery Steevens, Dennis Steffensen, Dave Stone, Peter Tango

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Risk assessment is a four–stage process used in evaluating the impact of contaminants on the well being of individuals, populations and/or the physical environment. As defined by the National Academy of Sciences (1983), the four components are as follows: hazard identification, dose– response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization.
The goal of a risk assessment is to utilize existing information coupled with site specific data to quantitatively characterize the potential risk of a stressor to an identified receptor(s). Quantitative, risk–based estimates of dose–response relationships integrated with exposure scenarios and information on environmental conditions often become the basis for regulatory measures …

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 26: Human Health Effects Workgroup Report, Sandra Azevedo, Neil Chernoff, Ian Falconer, Michael Gage, Elizabeth Hilborn, Michelle Hooth, Karl Jensen, Robert Macphail, Ellen Rogers, Glen Shaw, Ian Stewart

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Two types of approaches may be used to evaluate the toxicity of environmental agents:

• Observational population studies may be used to investigate humans or animals in contact with the agent of interest, either prospectively or retrospectively.
• Experimental studies may be performed under controlled conditions on animals, living tissues or cells. These results may be extrapolated to human and animal populations.

Observational epidemiological studies of human and animal populations have the advantage of investigating the effects of environmentally relevant exposures to naturally–occurring mixtures of toxins. Health effects may be identified in the target species of concern. These studies are …

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 38: Integrating Human And Ecological Risk Assessment: Application To The Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Bloom Problem, Jennifer Orme-Zavaleta, Wayne Munns, Jr.

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Environmental and public health policy continues to evolve in response to new and complex social, economic and environmental drivers. Globalization and centralization of commerce, evolving patterns of land use (e.g., urbanization, deforestation), and technological advances in such areas as manufacturing and development of genetically modified foods have created new and complex classes of stressors and risks (e.g., climate change, emergent and opportunist disease, sprawl, genomic change). In recognition of these changes, environmental risk assessment and its use are changing from stressor-endpoint specific assessments used in command and control types of decisions to an integrated approach for application in communitybased decisions. …

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 15: Cyanotoxins Workgroup Report, Rex Pegram, Andrew Humpage, Brett Neilan, Maria Runnegar, Tonya Nichols, Robert Thacker, Stephan Pflugmacher, Stacey Etheridge, Adam Love

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

The Cyanotoxins Workgroup was charged with the identification and prioritization of research needs associated with: the identification of cyanotoxins; toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of cyanotoxins; human susceptibility to the toxins; cyanobacterial genetics/omics and factors for inclusion in predictive models of toxin production; and risk reduction from an intentional or accidental release of cyanotoxins. Papers presented for the Cyanotoxins Session of the symposium on toxin types, toxicokinetics, and toxicodyamics (See Humpage this volume), cyanobacterial genetics of toxin production (See Neilan this volume), and parameters related to human risks from cyanobacterial exposure (See Love this volume) set the stage for Cyanotoxins Workgroup discussions. …

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 2: A Synopsis Of Research Needs Identified At The Interagency, International Symposium On Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms (Isoc-Hab), H. Kenneth Hudnell, Quay Dortch

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Evidence indicates that the incidence of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CHABs) is increasing in spatial extent and temporal frequency worldwide. Cyanobacterial blooms produce highly potent toxins and huge, noxious biomasses in surface waters used for recreation, commerce, and as drinking water sources. The Interagency, International Symposium on Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms (ISOC-HAB) characterized the state of the science and identified research needed to address the risks posed by CHABs to human health and ecosystem sustainability. This chapter provides a synopsis of CHAB research needs that were identified by workgroups that addressed charges in major topic areas. The research and infrastructure …

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: Chapter 3: Occurrence Of Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms Workgroup Report, Anthony Fristachi, James Sinclair, Sherwood Hall, Julie Hambrook Berkman, Greg Boyer, Joann Burkholder, John Burns, Wayne Carmichael, Al Dufour, William Frazier, Steve Morton, Eric O’Brien, Steven Walker

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Freshwater cyanobacteria periodically accumulate, or bloom, in water bodies across the United States (US). These blooms, also known as cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CHAB), can lead to a reduction in the number of individuals who engage in recreational activities in lakes and reservoirs, degrade aquatic habitats and potentially impact human health. In 1998, Congress passed the 1998 Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act (HABHRCA) to address CHABs that impacted living marine resources, fish and shellfish harvests and recreational and service industries along US coastal waters. In 2004, as part of its reauthorization, HABHRCA requires federal agencies to …

Nitrogen In The Environment: Chapter 22. New Policy Directions, A.P. Manale

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Advances in linking the science of ecology with economics and the development of agri-environmental modeling systems coupled with new information technology suggest new public policy approaches that reward agricultural producers for providing ecological services. An incentive-based ecosystem approach that identifies and quantifies an array of environmental services that can be provided by agricultural land, and then facilitates the development of markets in these services can protect environmental quality while improving farm income. Sustainability can be achieved whereby economic needs of society are integrated into environmental protection. Before presenting new agricultural policy approaches for improving environmental quality and, in particular, managing …

Bridging The Gaps Between Design And Use: Developing Tools To Support Environmental Management And Policy, B. S. Mcintosh, C. Giupponi, A. A. Voinov, C. Smith, K. B. Matthews, M. Monticino, M. J. Kolkman, N. Crossman, M. Van Ittersum, D. Haase, A. Haase, J. Mysiak, J. Groot, S. Sieber, P. Verweij, N. Quinn, P. Waeger, N. Gaber, D. Hepting, H. Scholten, A. Sulis, H. Van Delden, E. Gaddis, H. Assaf

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Sound decisions in environmental policy and management usually require the examination of alternative solutions, and may require the consideration of alternative problem fornlulations prior to option assessment. Constructing and considering the consequences of alternative problems (variables and relations) and policy options (norms and standards) is fundamental for processes of policy fornlulation (Vickers, 1965).

Complexity And Uncertainty: Rethinking The Modelling Activity, M. Brugnach, C. Pahl-Wostl, K. E. Lindenschmidt, J. A.E.B. Janssen, T. Filatova, A. Mouton, G. Holtz, P. Van Der Keur, N. N. Gaber

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Complexity and uncertainty have become critical considerations for environmental modelling applications, opening ne\v avenues for the use and development of models. Increasingly l110dels are being recognized as essential tools to learn, coml11unicate, explore and resolve the particulars of complex environmental problems (Sterman, 2002; Van den Belt, 2(04). However, this shift in the way in which models have been used has not always been accompanied by a concomitant shift in the way in which models have been conceived and implemented. Too often, models were conceived and built as predictive devices, aimed at capturing single, best, objective explanations. Considerations of uncertainty were …

2008 Epa’S Report On The Environment: Indicators Presenting Data For Epa Region 7, United States Environmental Protection Agency

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

EPA’s 2008 Report on the Environment (ROE) compiles, in one place, the most reliable indicators currently available to answer 23 questions that EPA believes are of critical importance to its mission to protect human health and the environment.
The indicators are supported by data gathered from federal and state agencies and non-governmental organizations. All ROE indicators were peer-reviewed to meet exacting standards for accuracy, representativeness, and reliability, and the report has undergone extensive internal and interagency review, SAB review, and public comment. The indicators present trends wherever adequate data are available, and establish national baselines where they are not. The …

Introduction To The Ilsi Research Foundation/Risk Science Institute Reports From The Expert Working Group On Neurodevelopmental Endpoints, Julie Fitzpatrick, Elizabeth Mendez, Isabel Walls

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

In 2004 the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Risk Science Institute established an expert working group to assess the lessons learned from the implementation of standardized tests for developmental neurotoxicity in experimental animals. This introduction summarizes the working group process and the four reports from the expert working group addressing: the use of positive controls, understanding variability, appropriate statistical techniques, and interpretation. The reports address the 1991 US Environmental Protection Agency standardized protocol for evaluation of developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) and the 2007 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Test Guidelines for DNT. The EPA protocol is comprised of tests …

Eutrophication And Harmful Algal Blooms: A Scientific Consensus, J. Heisler, P. M. Glibert, J. M. Burkholder, D. M. Anderson, W. Cochlan, W. C. Dennison, Q. Dortch, C. J. Gobler, C. A. Heil, E. Humphries, A. Lewitus, R. Magnien, H. G. Marshall, K. Sellner, D. A. Stockwell, D. K. Stoecker, M. Suddleson

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

In January 2003, the US Environmental Protection Agency sponsored a ‘‘roundtable discussion’’ to develop a consensus on the relationship between eutrophication and harmful algal blooms (HABs), specifically targeting those relationships for which management actions may be appropriate. Academic, federal, and state agency representatives were in attendance. The following seven statements were unanimously adopted by attendees based on review and analysis of current as well as pertinent previous data:

(1) Degraded water quality from increased nutrient pollution promotes the development and persistence of many HABs and is one of the reasons for their expansion in the U.S. and other nations;

(2) …

The Truth About Soviet Whaling: A Memoir, Alfred Berzin

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

In November 1993, Professor Alexei Yablokov, who at the time was the Science Advisor to Russian President Boris Yeltsin, stood on a podium in Galveston, Tex., and delivered a speech to the Society for Marine Mammalogy’s biennial conference, the premier international event in the field of marine mammal science. Addressing the 1,500 scientists present, he made what amounted to a national confession: that, beginning in 1948, the U.S.S.R. had begun a huge campaign of illegal whaling. Despite being a signatory to the International Convention on the Regulation of Whaling (signed in Washington, D.C., just 2 years before in 1946), the …

Hunting Cetaceans With Sound: A Worldwide Review, Robert L. Brownell Jr., Douglas P. Nowacek, Katherine Ralls

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

Cetaceans are sensitive to a variety of anthropogenic sounds because they normally use sound to navigate, communicate and capture prey. This paper reviews some fisheries that have taken advantage of this sensitivity by using sound to help capture numerous species of dolphins and whales. Fishermen in many parts of the world have independently developed methods that use sounds to drive (herd) various species of small cetaceans so that they can be killed and used for food, culled (i.e. to offset competition for fish), help capture fish (e.g. in the Eastern Tropical Pacific) or be taken into captivity. It is well …

Biological Background On Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Spp.) In The 'Live-Capture' Trade And Specifically On The Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin, T. Aduncus, Robert L. Brownell Jr., Randall Reeves

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

The most significant cetacean trade items until commercial whaling all but ceased in the 1990s (aside from scientific exchanges of tissues etc.) were meat and blubber from baleen whales for human consumption. Since then, live dolphins and 'small' whales for display (and to some extent for research, military use, and 'therapy') have become the most significant cetacean 'products' in international trade. Trade in live cetaceans is presently dominated by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.), beluga whales (Debhinapterns leucas) and to a lesser extent killer whales (Orcinus orca) (Fisher and Reeves 2005). In the past, most of …

Harbor Seal Population Decline In The Aleutian Archipelago, Robert Small, Peter Boveng, G. Vernon Byrd, David Withrow

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

Populations of Steller sea lions, northern fur seals, and northern sea otters declined substantially during recent decades in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands region, yet the population status of harbor seals has not been assessed adequately. We determined that counts obtained during skiff-based surveys conducted in 1977–1982 represent the earliest estimate of harbor seal abundance throughout the Aleutian Islands. By comparing counts from 106 islands surveyed in 1977–1982 (8,601 seals) with counts from the same islands during a 1999 aerial survey (2,859 seals), we observed a 67% decline over the ∼20-year period. Regionally, the largest decline of 86% was …

Taking Account Of Dependent Species In Management Of The Southern Ocean Krill Fishery: Estimating Crabeater Seal Abundance Off East Antarctica, Colin Southwell, Charles G. M. Paxton, David Borchers, Peter Boveng, William De La Mare

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

1. The crabeater seal Lobodon carcinophaga is considered to be a key species in the krill-based food web of the Southern Ocean. Reliable estimates of the abundance of this species are necessary to allow the development of multispecies, predator–prey models as a basis for management of the krill fishery in the Southern Ocean.

2. A survey of crabeater seal abundance was undertaken in 1500 000 km² of pack-ice off east Antarctica between longitudes 64–150° E during the austral summer of 1999/2000. Sighting surveys, using double observer line transect methods, were conducted from an icebreaker and two helicopters to estimate …

Determining Spatial And Temporal Scales For Management: Lessons From Whaling, P J. Clapham, Alex Aguilar, Leila Hatch

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

Selection of the appropriate management unit is critical to the conservation of animal populations. Defining such units depends upon knowledge of population structure and upon the timescale being considered. Here, we examine the trajectory of eleven subpopulations of five species of baleen whales to investigate temporal and spatial scales in management. These subpopulations were all extirpated by commercial whaling, and no recovery or repopulation has occurred since. In these cases, time elapsed since commercial extinction ranges from four decades to almost four centuries. We propose that these subpopulations did not recover either because cultural memory of the habitat has been …

Linking Colonies To Fisheries: Spatio-Temporal Overlap Between Common Murres (Uria Aalge) From Tatoosh Island And Coastal Gillnet Fisheries In The Pacific Northwest, Usa, Nathalie J. Hamela, Julia K. Parrisha, Jeff Laake

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

The population-level impact of seabird bycatch is difficult to assess because colony-of-origin is often unknown. As an alternative and complementary approach to ship-derived observations, we assessed the relative potential for bycatch of a known seabird population by quantifying spatio-temporal overlap with local fisheries. Common murres (Uria aalge) have been reported as the most abundant seabird inadvertently caught in Washington and British Columbia coastal gillnet fisheries. In 1999–2001, we tracked 48 common murres from Tatoosh Island, the closest colony to the fisheries, during post-breeding. Using capture- mark-recapture models, we estimated weekly murre movement probabilities to/from three strata (offshore of, …

Legal Viability, Societal Values, And Spoir: Response To D’Elia Et Al., Robin Waples, Peter B. Adams, James Bohnsack, Barbara L. Taylor

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

After many years of experiencing relatively benign neglect, the language in the U.S Endangered Species Act (ESA) that deals with risks to a species in a “significant portion of its range” (SPOIR) has attracted a great deal of recent attention from legal and biological perspectives (Defenders of Wildlife v. Norton 2001; Center for Biological Diversity v. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007; Vucetich et al. 2006; Nelson et al. 2007; Waples et al. 2007a, 2007b). In the latest commentary on this topic, D’Elia et al. (2008) make 3 major points: (1) when evaluating such language, …

Potential For Anthropogenic Disturbances To Influence Evolutionary Change In The Life History Of A Threatened Salmonid, John G. Williams, Richard W. Zabel, Robin Waples, Jeffrey A. Hutchings, William P. Connor

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

Although evolutionary change within most species is thought to occur slowly, recent studies have identified cases where evolutionary change has apparently occurred over a few generations. Anthropogenically altered environments appear particularly open to rapid evolutionary change over comparatively short time scales. Here, we consider a Pacific salmon population that may have experienced life-history evolution, in response to habitat alteration, within a few generations. Historically, juvenile fall Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) from the Snake River migrated as subyearlings to the ocean. With changed riverine conditions that resulted from hydropower dam construction, some juveniles now migrate as yearlings, but more …

Association Between Alcohol Consumption And Both Osteoporotic Fracture And Bone Density, Karina M. Berg, Hillary V. Kunins, Jeffrey L. Jackson, Shadi Nahvi, Amina Chaudhry, Kenneth A. Harris Jr., Rubina Malik, Julia H. Arnsten

Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences

OBJECTIVE: Alcoholism is a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures and low bone density, but the effects of moderate alcohol consumption on bone are unknown. We performed a systematic review and metaanalysis to assess the associations between alcohol consumption and osteoporotic fractures, bone density and bone density loss over time, bone response to estrogen replacement, and bone remodeling.
METHODS: MEDLINE, Current Contents, PsychINFO, and Cochrane Libraries were searched for studies published before May 14, 2007. We assessed quality using the internal validity criteria of the US Preventive Services Task Force.
RESULTS: We pooled effect sizes for 2 specific outcomes (hip fracture …

Chlorothalonil Exposure And Cancer Incidence Among Pesticideapplicator Participants In The Agricultural Health Study, Alicia M. Mozzachio, Jennifer A. Rusiecki, Jane A. Hoppin, Rajeev Mahajan, Rahulkumar Patel, Laura Beane-Freeman, Michael Cr Alavanja

Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences

Background: Chlorothalonil is a broad spectrum, non-systemic fungicide widely used to control diseases affecting over 50 fruit, vegetable, and agricultural crops. Despite its extensive use for over 30 years, little is known about the potential human carcinogenicity associated with the routine application of chlorothalonil. Rodent studies have shown evidence of renal tubular carcinomas and adenomas. We explored cancer incidence with chlorothalonil exposure using data from the Agricultural Health Study, a prospective cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Iowa and North Carolina.
Methods: Licensed private and commercial pesticide applicators were recruited into this study from 1993 to 1997. Detailed information regarding …

Interactions: Newsletter Of The Wildlife Society Wildlife Damage Management Working Group, Interactions: Volume 14 Issue 4 Fall 2008

TWS Wildlife Damage Management Working Group Newsletter

Final Message - It’s Been Fun! Letters From Art; And Now…A Word From The Editor; Publication Announcement Urban Coyote Management; Publication Announcement Mule Deer Conservation; Candidate for Chairelect Gary Witmer; Candidate for Chairelect Kurt Vercauteren; Wdm Working Group Meeting; Candidate for Secretary Treasurer David Drake; Candidate for Secretary Treasurer Mike Mengak; Candidate for Secretary Treasurer Nicki Frey; Candidate for Board Member Travis Devault; Candidate for Board Member Denise Ruffino; Candidate for Board Member Bob Timm; Candidate for Board Member Paul Curtis; Candidate for Board Member Jimmy Taylor; Candidate for Board Member Phil Mastrangelo; Candidate for Board Member Kris Godwin; Candidate …

Newsletter Of The Wildlife Society Wildlife Damage Management Working Group Interactions: Volume 14 Issue 3 Summer 2008

TWS Wildlife Damage Management Working Group Newsletter

A Look at Wild Boar Problems In Slovenia; Plan Ahead….The Wildlife Damage Management Conference I S Coming! Letters From Art; Internet Resources New Wildlife Damage Management Blog; Publication Announcement Issue 2-2 of Human Wildlife Conflicts Now Available; Conference Announcement 6th International IPM Symposium; WDM Working Group Meeting; 2009 Wildlife Damage Management Conference Call for Papers And Abstract Guidelines; Save The Date!!! The 2009 Wildlife Damage Management Conference Is Coming Soon!!!; 2009 Wildlife Damage Management Committees and Chairs; Recent Wildlife Damage Management Research; The Wildlife Society Wildlife Damage Management Working Group; Upcoming Meetings, Conferences, And Events

Range-Wide Patterns Of Greater Sage-Grouse Persistence, Cameron L. Aldridge, Scott E. Nielsen, Hawthorne L. Beyer, Mark S. Boyce, John W. Connelly, Steven T. Knick, Michael A. Schroeder

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Aim
Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), a shrub-steppe obligate species of western North America, currently occupies only half its historical range. Here we examine how broad-scale, long-term trends in landscape condition have affected range contraction.

Location
Sagebrush biome of the western USA.

Methods
Logistic regression was used to assess persistence and extirpation of greater sage-grouse range based on landscape conditions measured by human population (density and population change), vegetation (percentage of sagebrush habitat), roads (density of and distance to roads), agriculture (cropland, farmland and cattle density), climate (number of severe and extreme droughts) and range periphery. Model predictions were …

Distribution And Environmental Limitations Of An Amphibian Pathogen In The Rocky Mountains, Usa, Erin Muths, David S. Pilliod, Lauren J. Livo

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Amphibian populations continue to be imperiled by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). Understanding where B. dendrobatidis (Bd) occurs and how it may be limited by environmental factors is critical to our ability to effectively conserve the amphibians affected by Bd. We sampled 1247 amphibians (boreal toads and surrogates) at 261 boreal toad (Bufo boreas) breeding sites (97 clusters) along an 11° latitudinal gradient in the Rocky Mountains to determine the distribution of B. dendrobatidis and examine environmental factors, such as temperature and elevation, that might affect its distribution. The fungus was detected at …

Corrigendum To ‘‘Distribution And Environmental Limitations Of An Amphibian Pathogen In The Rocky Mountains, Usa’’ [Biological Conservation 141 (2008) 1484–1492], Erin Muths, David S. Pilliod, Lauren J. Livo

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

The author regrets that in the above published paper the following error occurred:
In our recently published paper, ‘‘Distribution and environmental limitations of an amphibian pathogen in the Rocky Mountains, USA’’, we erroneously included the paper by J. Bosch et al. (2006), ‘‘Climate change and outbreaks of amphibian chytridiomycosis in a montane area of Central Spain: is there a link?’’ in a list of studies from the tropics. Clearly Dr. Bosch and colleagues worked in the temperate zone at a latitude very similar to that in our study suggesting that further investigation of additional similarities between the two sites might …

Pesticide Fate And Transport Throughout Unsaturated Zones In Five Agricultural Settings, Usa, Tracy C. Hancock, Mark W. Sandstrom, Jason R. Vogel, Richard M.T. Webb, E. Randall Bayless, Jack E. Barbash

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Pesticide transport through the unsaturated zone is a function of chemical and soil characteristics, application, and water recharge rate. The fate and transport of 82 pesticides and degradates were investigated at five different agricultural sites. Atrazine and metolachlor, as well as several of the degradates of atrazine, metolachlor, acetochlor, and alachlor, were frequently detected in soil water during the 2004 growing season, and degradates were generally more abundant than parent compounds. Metolachlor and atrazine were applied at a Nebraska site the same year as sampling, and focused recharge coupled with the short time since application resulted in their movement in …