Digital Commons Network^™

Patch Size And Landscape Effects On Density And Nesting Success Of Grassland Birds, Maiken Winter, Douglas H. Johnson, Jill A. Shaffer, Therese M. Donovan, W. Daniel Svedarsky

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

Cumnt management recommendations for grassland birds in North America emphasize providing large patches of grassland habitat within landscapes that have few forest or shrubland areas. These Bird Conservation Areas are being proposed under the assumption that large patches of habitat in treeless landscapes will maintain viable populations of grassland birds. This assumption requires that patch size and landscape features affect density and nesting success of grassland birds, and that these effects are consistent among years and regions and across focal species. However, these assumptions have not yet been validated for grassland binls, and the relative importance of local vegetation structure, …

Avian Response To Meadow Restoration In The Central Great Plains, Rosalind B. Renfrew, Douglas H. Johnson, Gary R. Lingle, W. Douglas Robinson

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

Native grassland is one of the most heavily degraded of all North American ecosystems, and restoration of altered grasslands is a tool used to mitigate some of the biological ramifications of past land use practices. Providing habitat for grassland-dependent bird species often is one of the many goals of restoration. We evaluated the efficacy of meadow restoration for breeding birds in the Nebraska Platte River Valley by comparing the bird community and vegetation structure on 25 natural (original sod) and 25 restored meadows. We conducted principal components analyses on the vegetation structure and on the bird community, and modeled the …

Urine-Marking And Ground-Scratching By Free-Ranging Arctic Wolves, Canis Lupus Arctos, In Summer, L. David Mech

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

Urine-marking and ground-scratching were observed in an Arctic Wolf (Canis lupus) pack on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada, during 16 summers between 1986 and 2005. All previously known urination postures and ground-scratching by breeding males and females were seen, and incidence of marking and scratching was greatest when non-pack wolves were present. Observations of urine-marking of food remains supported the conclusion from a captive Wolf study that such marking signals lack of edible food.

Slow Ligand Binding Kinetics Dominate Ferrous Hexacoordinate Hemoglobin Reactivities And Reveal Differences Between Plants And Other Species, Benoit J. Smagghe, Gautam Sarath, Emily Ross, Jean-Louis Hilbert, Mark S. Hargrove

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Hexacoordinate hemoglobins are found in many living organisms ranging from prokaryotes to plants and animals. They are named “hexacoordinate” because of reversible coordination of the heme iron by a histidine side chain located in the heme pocket. This endogenous coordination competes with exogenous ligand binding and causes multiphasic relaxation time courses following rapid mixing or flash photolysis experiments. Previous rapid mixing studies have assumed a steady-state relationship between hexacoordination and exogenous ligand binding that does not correlate with observed time courses for binding. Here, we demonstrate that this assumption is not valid for some hexacoordinate hemoglobins, and that multiphasic time …

Survey Of Phytophagous Insects And Foliar Pathogens In China For A Biocontrol Perspective On Kudzu, Pueraria Montana Var. Lobata (Willd.) Maesen And S. Almeida (Fabaceae), Jiang-Hua Sun, Zhu-Dong Liu, Kerry O. Britton, Ping Cai, David Orr, Judith Hough-Goldstein

United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

A three-year survey of kudzu foliage, seed, stems, and roots for associated phytophagous insects was conducted to establish basic information about the insect communities that kudzu harbors in China and to assess the abundance, diversity and damage caused by these insects. Diseases of kudzu were also surveyed in southern China. A total of 116 phytophagous insect species in 31 families and 5 orders were collected from kudzu in China, in six feeding guilds: foliage, sap, stem, terminal, seed and root feeders. The impact of foliage feeders varied from site to site and year to year, and over the course of …

Design Clues From Functional Constraints And Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies, Tongqing Zhou, Ling Xu, Barna Dey, Ann J. Hessell, Shahzad Majeed, Donald Van Ryk, Shi-Hua Xiang, Xinzhen Yang, Mei-Yun Zhang, Michael B. Zwick, James Arthos, Dennis R. Burton, Dimiter S. Dimitrov, Joseph Sodroski, Richard Wyatt, Gary J. Nabel, Peter D. Kwong

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

No abstract provided.

Cross-Subtype T-Cell Immune Responses Induced By A Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Group M Consensus Env Immunogen, Eric A. Weaver, Zenaido T. Camacho, Fatiha Moukdar, Hua-Xin Liao, Ben-Jiang Ma, Mark Muldoon, James Theiler, Gary J. Nabel, Norman L. Letvin, Bette T. Korber, Beatrice H. Hahn, Barton F. Haynes, Feng Gao, Zhongjing Lu

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

The genetic diversity among globally circulating human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains is a serious challenge for HIV-1 vaccine design. We have generated a synthetic group M consensus env gene (CON6) for induction of cross-subtype immune responses and report here a comparative study of T-cell responses to this and natural strain env immunogens in a murine model. Three different strains of mice were immunized with CON6 as well as subtype A, B, or C env immunogens, using a DNA prime-recombinant vaccinia virus boost strategy. T-cell epitopes were mapped by gamma interferon enzyme-linked immunospot analysis using five overlapping Env peptide …

Biological Opinion On The Operation Of The Missouri River Main Stem System, Missouri River Bank Stabilization And Navigation Project, And Operation Of The Kansas River Reservoir System

United States Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) prepares an annual report for interested parties in accordance with the reporting requirements of the “Biological Opinion (BiOp) on the Operation of the Missouri River Main Stem System, Operation and Maintenance of the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project (BSNP), and Operation of the Kansas River Reservoir System” prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) dated November 30, 2000 and the Amendment, thereto, dated December 16, 2003.

This annual report documents the Corps threatened and endangered species conservation activities to comply with the provisions of the 2000 BiOp and the …

Are Trans-Pacific Invasions The New Wave?, Ragan M. Callaway, Shi Li Miao, Qinfeng Guo

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

The movement of organisms among continents by humans has caused profound changes in the ecology of relocated species and of communities to which they have been introduced. Perhaps less than 1% of all species that arrive at foreign shores become invaders (Williamson and Fitter 1996), but the few that explode in abundance wreak tremendous environmental and economic damage (Mack et al. 2000; Pimentel et al. 2000; Xu et al. 2006). During the last decade research on invasive species has dramatically increased. For example, from 1988 to 1990 the journal Ecology published three papers with the words ‘invasive’ or ‘invader’ in …

Monitoring Invasive Mammalian Predator Populations Sharing Habitat With The Critically Endangered Puerto Rican Parrot Amazona Vittata, Richard M. Engeman, Desley Whisson, Jessica Quinn, Felipe Cano, Pedro Quiñones, Thomas H. White

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Critically Endangered Puerto Rican parrots Amazona vittata are one of the rarest birds in the world. Several exotic mammal species capable of preying on Puerto Rican parrots cohabit the Caribbean National Forest with the only wild population of these parrots. We used tracking plates, monitoring blocks and trapping to index black rats, small Indian mongooses and feral cats in parrot habitat and in public-use areas in the same habitat type. We had high trap success for black rats at all sites (42% of all sites combined), among the highest reported in the world. Rat response to monitoring (nontoxic bait) blocks …

North American Prairie Wetlands Are Important Nonforested Land-Based Carbon Storage Sites, Ned H. Euliss Jr., R. A. Gleason, A. Olness, R.L. Mcdougal, H.R. Murkin, R.D. Robarts, R.A. Bourbonniere, B.G. Warner

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

We evaluated the potential of prairie wetlands in North America as carbon sinks. Agricultural conversion has resulted in the average loss of 10.1 Mg ha^- of soil organic carbon on over 16 million ha of wetlands in this region. Wetland restoration has potential to sequester 378 Tg of organic carbon over a 10-year period. Wetlands can sequester over twice the organic carbon as no-till cropland on only about 17% of the total land area in the region. We estimate that wetland restoration has potential to offset 2.4% of the annual fossil CO₂ emission reported for North America in …

Mallard Brood Movements, Wetland Use, And Duckling Survival During And Following A Prairie Drought, Gary L. Krapu, Pamela J. Pietz, David A. Brandt, Robert R. Cox Jr.

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

We used radiotelemetry to study mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) brood movements, wetland use, and duckling survival during a major drought (1988–1992) and during the first 2 years of the subsequent wet period (1993–1994) at 4 51-km² sites in prairie pothole landscapes in eastern North Dakota, USA. About two-thirds of 69 radiomarked mallard broods initiated moves from the nest to water before noon, and all left the nest during daylight. On average, broods used fewer wetlands, but moved greater distances during the dry period than the wet period. Broods of all ages were more likely to make inter-wetland moves …

Missouri River Mainstem Reservoir System Master Water Control Manual Missouri River Basin

United States Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District

In 2003, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) issued an Amended Biological Opinion (2003 Amended BiOp) on the United States Army Corps of Engineers’ (Corps’) Missouri River System operations. Among other actions, the 2003 Amended BiOp called for bimodal spring pulse releases from Gavins Point Dam for the benefit of the listed pallid sturgeon. Working with the USFWS, Tribes, states, and other basin stakeholders, the Corps has developed technical criteria for the bimodal spring pulse releases which, under the terms of the 2003 Amended BiOp, are to be implemented by March 2006. By my approval of the attached …

Prediction Failure Of A Wolf Landscape Model, L. David Mech

United States Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Publications

I compared 101 wolf (Canis lupus) pack territories formed in Wisconsin during 1993–2004 to the logistic regression predictive model of Mladenoff et al. (1995, 1997, 1999). Of these, 60% were located in putative habitat suitabilities 50% remained unoccupied by known packs after 24 years of recolonization. This model was a poor predictor of wolf re-colonizing locations in Wisconsin, apparently because it failed to consider the adaptability of wolves. Such models should be used cautiously in wolf-management or restoration plans.

Red-Winged Blackbird (Agelaius Phoeniceus) Reproduction In North Dakota, Rachel M. Bush, Mark E. Clark, Wendy L. Read, George M. Linz

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

No abstract provided.

Modeling, Analysis, And Experimental Study Of In Vivo Wheeled Robotic Mobility, Mark E. Rentschler, Jason Dumpert, Stephen R. Platt, Karl Iagnemma, Dmitry Oleynikov, Shane M. Farritor

Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering: Faculty Publications

Laparoscopy is abdominal surgery performed with long tools inserted through small incisions. The use of small incisions reduces patient trauma, but also eliminates the surgeon’s ability to view and touch the surgical environment directly. These limitations generally restrict the application of laparoscopy to procedures less complex than those performed during open surgery. This paper presents a theoretical and experimental analysis of miniature, wheeled, in vivo robots to support laparoscopy. The objective is to develop a wireless mobile imaging robot that can be placed inside the abdominal cavity during surgery. Such robots will allow the surgeon to view the surgical environment …

Sentinel Nematodes Of Land-Use Change And Restoration In Tallgrass Prairie, T. C. Todd, T. O. Powers, P.G. Mullin

Department of Plant Pathology: Faculty Publications

Changes in land use and the associated changes in land cover are recognized as the most important component of human-induced global change. Much attention has been focused on deforestation, but grasslands are among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. The North American tallgrass prairie is a dramatic example, exhibiting a greater than 95% decline in historical area. Renewed interest in prairie conservation and restoration has highlighted the need for ecological indicators of disturbance and recovery in native systems, including the below ground component. The tallgrass prairie differs from the agricultural systems that have replaced it in having greater diversity and …

A Position Paper On The Electronic Publication Of Nematode Taxonomic Manuscripts, Eyualem Abebe, James G. Baldwin, Byron Adams, Duane Hope, Scott Gardner, Robin Huettel, Peter Mullin, Thomas O. Powers, Jyotsna Sharma, Weimin Ye, William K. Thomas

Department of Plant Pathology: Faculty Publications

Several nematode species have now attained ‘model organism’ status, yet there remain many niches in basic biological inquiry for which nematodes would be ideal model systems of study. However, furthering the model system approach is hindered by lack of information on nematode biodiversity. The shortage of taxonomic resources to inventory and characterize biodiversity hinders research programs in invasion biology, ecosystem functioning, conservation biology, and many others. The disproportion between numbers of species to be described and numbers of available taxonomic specialists is greater for Nematoda than for any other metazoan phylum. A partial solution to the taxonomic impediment is the …

Interactions Between The Soybean Cyst Nematode And Fusarium Solani F. Sp. Glycines Based On Greenhouse Factorial Experiments, X. Gao, T. A. Jackson, G. L. Hartman, T. L. Niblack

Department of Plant Pathology: Faculty Publications

The soybean cyst nematode, Heterodera glycines, and the fungus that causes sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean, Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines, frequently co-infest soybean (Glycine max) fields. The interactions between H. glycines and F. solani f. sp. glycines were investigated in factorial greenhouse experiments with different inoculum levels of both organisms on a soybean cultivar susceptible to both pathogens. Measured responses included root and shoot dry weights, H. glycines reproduction, area under the SDS disease progress curve, and fungal colonization of roots. Both H. glycines and F. solani f. sp. glycines reduced the growth of …

First Report Of Leaf Spot Of Smooth Bromegrass Caused By Pithomyces Chartarum In Nebraska, C. Eken, C. C. Jochum, G. Y. Yuen

Department of Plant Pathology: Faculty Publications

Smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss.) is the most common perennial grass species cultivated for forage in North America. During late fall of 2004, smooth bromegrass plants in Lincoln, NE were observed to have brown lesions on leaf midveins that were several centimeters long. Symptomatic leaves were surface disinfested for 1 min in 2% NaOCl and incubated at 25°C on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and water agar. The fungus, Pithomyces chartarum (Berk. & Curt) Ellis, was isolated consistently and identified on the basis of morphological characteristics (1). Colonies were effused and black on PDA. Conidiophores measured 3.5 to 8 …

Bioinformatics-Enabled Identification Of The Hrpl Regulon And Type Iii Secretion System Effector Proteins Of Pseudomonas Syringae Pv. Phaseolicola 1448a, Monica Vencato, Fang Tian, James R. Alfano, C. Robin Buell, Samuel Cartinhour, Genevieve A. Declerck, David S. Guttman, John Stavrinides, Vinita Joardar, Magdalen Lindeberg, Philip A. Bronstein, John W. Mansfield, Christopher R. Myers, Alan Collmer, David J. Schneider

Department of Plant Pathology: Faculty Publications

The ability of Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola to cause halo blight of bean is dependent on its ability to translocate effector proteins into host cells via the hypersensitive response and pathogenicity (Hrp) type III secretion system (T3SS). To identify genes encoding type III effectors and other potential virulence factors that are regulated by the HrpL alternative sigma factor, we used a hidden Markov model, weight matrix model, and type III targeting-associated patterns to search the genome of P. syringae pv. phaseolicola 1448A, which recently was sequenced to completion. We identified 44 high-probability putative Hrp promoters upstream of genes encoding the …

Regulation Of Hyphal Morphogenesis And The Dna Damage Response By The Aspergillus Nidulans Atm Homolog Atma, Iran Malavazi, Camile P. Semighini, Marcia Regina Von Zeska Kress, Steven D. Harris, Gustavo H. Goldman

Department of Plant Pathology: Faculty Publications

Ataxia telangiectasia (A-T) is an inherited disorder characterized by progressive loss of motor function and susceptibility to cancer. The most prominent clinical feature observed in A-T patients is the degeneration of Purkinje motor neurons. Numerous studies have emphasized the role of the affected gene product, ATM, in the regulation of the DNA damage response. However, in Purkinje cells, the bulk of ATM localizes to the cytoplasm and may play a role in vesicle trafficking. The nature of this function, and its involvement in the pathology underlying A-T, remain unknown. Here we characterize the homolog of ATM (AtmA) in the filamentous …

Characterization Of Hiv-1 Subtype C Envelope Glycoproteins From Perinatally Infected Children With Different Courses Of Disease, Hong Zhang, Federico Hoffmann, Jun He, Xiang He, Chipepo Kankasa, John T. West, Charles D. Mitchell, Ruth M. Ruprecht, Guillermo Orti, Charles Wood

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Background: The causal mechanisms of differential disease progression in HIV-1 infected children remain poorly defined, and much of the accumulated knowledge comes from studies of subtype B infected individuals. The applicability of such findings to other subtypes, such as subtype C, remains to be substantiated. In this study, we longitudinally characterized the evolution of the Env V1–V5 region from seven subtype C HIV-1 perinatally infected children with different clinical outcomes. We investigated the possible influence of viral genotype and humoral immune response on disease progression in infants.

Results: Genetic analyses revealed that rapid progressors (infants that died in the first …

Or.76. Myelin Specific Regulatory T-Cells Expand From Naturally Occurring Regulatory T-Cells And Accumulate In The Cns During Eae [Abstract Only], Thomas Korn, Jay Reddy, Wenda Gao, Terry Strom, Mohamed Oukka, Vijay K. Kuchroo

Jay Reddy Publications

FoxP3 is a lineage specific marker for regulatory T-cells (Treg). We have generated FoxP3 knock-in (KI) mice by introducing a bicistronic GFP reporter into the endogenous FoxP3 locus, allowing us to faithfully track T-reg in vivo. Recently, we have also generated a MOG 35-55/IAb-tetramer. The combination of these two technologies enables us to study the in vivo behavior of myelin specific T-reg and effector T-cells (T-eff) during EAE. Upon immunization with MOG 35-55, we identified a population of MOG-tetramerreactive T-reg in the peripheral lymphoid compartment. T-reg trafficked to the CNS where they were readily detected as early as day 10 …

Or.107. Tim-1 Plays A Crucial Role In The Expansion Of Autopathogneic T-Cells And Regulation Of Autoimmunity [Abstract Only], Sheng Xioa, Nader Najafian, Jay Reddy, Monica Albin, Chen Zhu, Ana Anderson, Zheng Zhang, Cristina Gutierrez, Raymond Sobel, Dale Umetsu, Hideo Yagita, Hisaya Akiba, Mohamed Sayegh, Rosemarie Dekruyff, Vijay K. Kuchroo

Jay Reddy Publications

T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin (TIM) family Members are differentially expressed on Th1 and Th2 cells. Polymorphisms of TIM-1 have been associated with susceptibility to asthma; however, its role in regulating autoimmunity has not been studied. Here, we have used an agonistic antiTIM-1 antibody (Ab, Clone 3B3) which has previously been shown to costimulate T-cell activation and expansion, to analyze the role of TIM-1 in the development and regulation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Treatment with 3B3 dramatically enhances the severity of EAE as well as the frequency of encephalitogenic CD4+ T-cells and the production of IFN-g and IL-17 by these …

Ferromagnetism And Structure Of Epitaxial Cr-Doped Anatase Tio2 Thin Films, T. C. Kaspar, T. Droubay, V. Shutthanandan, S. M. Heald, C. M. Wang, D. E. Mccready, S. Thevuthasan, J. D. Bryan, D. R. Gamelin, A. J. Kellock, M. F. Toney, X. Hong, C. H. Ahn, S. A. Chambers

Xia Hong Publications

The materials and magnetic properties of Cr-doped anatase TiO₂ thin films deposited on LaAlO₃(001) and SrTiO₃(001) substrates by oxygen-plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy have been studied in detail to elucidate the origin of ferromagnetic ordering. Cr substitution for Ti in the anatase lattice, with no evidence of Cr interstitials, segregation, or secondary phases, was independently confirmed by transmission electron microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, extended x-ray absorption fine structure, and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry in the channeling geometry. Epitaxial films deposited at ~0.1 Å/ s were found to have a highly defected crystalline structure, as quantified …

Effect Of Method Of Delivering Nicarbazin To Mallards On Plasma 4,4′-Dinitrocarbanilide Levels And Reproduction, C. A. Yoder, J. K. Graham, L. A. Miller, K. S. Bynum, J. J. Johnston, M. J. Goodall

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Nicarbazin (NCZ), a coccidiostat used in the poultry industry, has been developed as a contraceptive for resident Canada geese. We tested the efficacy of NCZ as a contraceptive using mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) as a model for Canada geese. Nicarbazin-treated corn was fed ad libitum for 14 d at 0, 750, 1,000, or 1,500 ppm. Plasma and egg levels of 4,4′-dinitrocarbanilide (DNC), the active anticoccidial component of NCZ, differed among treatment groups in a dose-response relationship, but plasma levels did not differ between sexes. Nicarbazin caused a decrease in egg weight, but there was no effect of NCZ on …

Evaluation Of Nicarbazin As A Potential Waterfowl Contraceptive Using Mallards As A Model, C. A. Yoder, J. K. Graham, L. A. Miller, K. S. Bynum, J. J. Johnston, M. J. Goodall

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Contraception may provide a useful nonlethal management tool to reduce wild bird populations. We tested the efficacy of nicarbazin (NCZ) as a contraceptive for waterfowl and assessed health effects of NCZ, using domestic mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) as a model for Canada geese (Branta canadensis). Mallards were given gelatin capsules containing 0, 8.5, 17.0, or 33.75 mg of NCZ/kg of BW perorally once daily for 14 d. Fecal 4,4′- dinitrocarbanilide (DNC) and fluorescein were evaluated as potential markers of plasma and egg DNC levels. Plasma, egg, and fecal DNC levels differed among treatment groups in a dose …

Molecular Effects Of Nicarbazin On Avian Reproduction, C. A. Yoder, J. K. Graham, L. A. Miller

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Nicarbazin (NCZ) is an anticoccidial drug routinely used in the poultry industry that can negatively affect reproduction by reducing egg production, egg weight, and egg hatchability. The molecular mechanisms by which NCZ affects reproduction are unknown. Lipoprotein lipase, vitellogenin, transglutaminase, and calcium are all involved in egg formation and embryogenesis. Therefore, in vitro assays were used to evaluate 4 potential mechanisms of action of NCZ on egg formation and embryogenesis. First, a lipoprotein lipase assay was conducted to determine if NCZ increases lipoprotein lipase activity. Second, vitellogenin phosphorylation was evaluated to determine if NCZ acts as a vitellogenin phosphatase. Third, …

Anthropogenic Drivers Of Ecosystem Change: An Overview, Gerald C. Nelson, Elena Bennett, Asmeret A. Berhe, Kenneth G. Cassman, Ruth Defries, Thomas Dietz, Achim R. Dobermann, Andrew Dobson, Anthony Janetos, Marc Levy, Diana Marco, Nebojsa Nakicenovic, Brian O'Neill, Richard Norgaard, Gerhard Petschel-Held, Dennis Ojima, Prabhu Pingali, Robert Watson, Monika Zurek

Department of Agronomy and Horticulture: Faculty Publications

This paper provides an overview of what the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) calls “indirect and direct drivers” of change in ecosystem services at a global level. The MA definition of a driver is any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. A direct driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes. An indirect driver operates more diffusely by altering one or more direct drivers. Global driving forces are categorized as demographic, economic, sociopolitical, cultural and religious, scientific and technological, and physical and biological. Drivers in all categories other than physical and biological are considered indirect. Important …