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Journal of Applied Sport Management

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Students Transitioning To College And Out Of Competitive Sport: Athletic Identity, Coping, And Stress, Alex Michael Russell, Michael Cottingham, Adam Barry, Don Lee, David Walsh Jan 2018

Students Transitioning To College And Out Of Competitive Sport: Athletic Identity, Coping, And Stress, Alex Michael Russell, Michael Cottingham, Adam Barry, Don Lee, David Walsh

Journal of Applied Sport Management

High-school athletes who transition into higher education as non-athlete students encounter several social and emotional difficulties. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influences of aforementioned participants’ athletic identities on their utilization of coping strategies and resulting perceptions of stress. A structural model was developed and empirically tested using a 48-item questionnaire. The sample population consisted of undergraduate students enrolled in freshman-level courses at three public southwestern universities. Structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated a strong model fit, including a significant correlation between various factors of athletic identity and coping, as well as a significant correlation between coping and …

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A Holistic Performance Assessment Of English Premier League Football Clubs 1992–2013, Daniel Plumley, Robert Wilson, Simon Shibli Jan 2017

A Holistic Performance Assessment Of English Premier League Football Clubs 1992–2013, Daniel Plumley, Robert Wilson, Simon Shibli

Journal of Applied Sport Management

This paper devises and tests a statistical model (the PAM) to measure the financial and sporting performance of professional football clubs. The PAM has been applied to a longitudinal data set of English football clubs (21 clubs between 1992–2013) to identify trends in performance. The results show that a small number of clubs have created an imbalance within English football and that there has been evidence of a “financial crisis” at individual clubs. For the majority of clubs, overall performance appears to vary over time in cycles. In addition to measuring holistic performance of professional football clubs in England, the …

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Motivation, Satisfaction, And Retention Of Sport Management Student Volunteers, James E. Johnson, Chrysostomos Giannoulakis, Nathan Felver, Lawrence W. Judge, Pierce A. David, Beau F. Scott Jan 2017

Motivation, Satisfaction, And Retention Of Sport Management Student Volunteers, James E. Johnson, Chrysostomos Giannoulakis, Nathan Felver, Lawrence W. Judge, Pierce A. David, Beau F. Scott

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Sport management programs often partner with intercollegiate athletic departments or community sport organizations to provide student volunteers. Motivating, satisfying, and retaining the student population may constitute a challenge for academic program stakeholders. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between motivation, satisfaction, and retention of volunteers at undergraduate sport management programs. Three hundred and twenty-two undergraduate students from five Midwestern institutions completed a 46-item questionnaire assessing their volunteer motivation, satisfaction, and retention. Results indicated students were predominantly motivated to volunteer by Love of Sport and Career motivation factors. Career, Social, Understanding, and Enhancement motivations significantly aided in …

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Examination Of Drinking Habits And Motives Of Collegiate Student-Athletes, Elizabeth A. Taylor, Rose Marie Ward, Robin Hardin Jan 2017

Examination Of Drinking Habits And Motives Of Collegiate Student-Athletes, Elizabeth A. Taylor, Rose Marie Ward, Robin Hardin

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Universities across the United States have reported consistently high rates of alcohol use and abuse among students during the past 20 years. The college student alcohol consumption level is considered an important public health concern. The increase in problematic drinking seems to be campus wide, but there is an understudied at-risk demographic—collegiate student-athletes. The purpose of this study is to examine student-athletes’ motives for alcohol consumption, drinking patterns, and alcohol-related negative consequences. Student-athletes (N = 283) from five Midwestern universities completed an online questionnaire assessing this behavior. Male student-athletes reported higher levels in all three categories than females. In addition, …

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Paying For Protection: The Effects Of Having An Elite Left Tackle, Quinn Andrew Wesley Keefer Jan 2017

Paying For Protection: The Effects Of Having An Elite Left Tackle, Quinn Andrew Wesley Keefer

Journal of Applied Sport Management

We exploit relatively new data collected by the NFL, since 2009, on the number of hits taken by a team’s quarterback to estimate the benefits and costs of employing an elite left tackle. We model the effect of an elite left tackle using a system of equations, which is estimated with seemingly unrelated regressions. Our system of equations considers quarterback hits, yards gained, and the probability of a quarterback injury. Overall, an All-Pro left tackle increases offensive production by 106 yards, or 8.5 points, and reduces the probability a team’s quarterback misses a game due to injury by 10.3 percentage …

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Is Going Green Worth It? Assessing Fan Engagement And Perceptions Of Athletic Department Environmental Efforts, Jonathan M. Casper, Michael E. Pfahl, Brian P. Mccullough Jan 2017

Is Going Green Worth It? Assessing Fan Engagement And Perceptions Of Athletic Department Environmental Efforts, Jonathan M. Casper, Michael E. Pfahl, Brian P. Mccullough

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which environmentally themed activities within an intercollegiate sport context impact fan engagement. A total of 557 fans responded to an online survey measuring fan connection to the athletic department, environmental values, expectations for environmental activities, event and at home environmental behaviors, perceptions of profile enhancement, and recall of environmental sponsors and major initiatives. Results found that fans expected athletic department environmental action and they help with favorable perceptions about the athletic program and university and influenced at event and home behaviors. Cluster analysis identified two clusters based on high …

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Outcomes-Based Career Preparation Programs For Contemporary Student-Athletes, Kristina Navarro, Heather Mccormick Jan 2017

Outcomes-Based Career Preparation Programs For Contemporary Student-Athletes, Kristina Navarro, Heather Mccormick

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Framed from a constructivist approach, this manuscript draws from Savickas’ (2005) Theory of Career Construction to assess programmatic development and mastery of learning outcomes in preparation for life after higher education. Utilizing a mixed-method approach, findings outline recommendations for campusbased practitioner programming informed from the voices of NCAA Division I football student-athletes.

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To Charge Or Not To Charge: Examining Stakeholder Perceptions Of Nonrevenue Sports Ticketing Policies, Peyton Stensland, Jordan Bass Jan 2017

To Charge Or Not To Charge: Examining Stakeholder Perceptions Of Nonrevenue Sports Ticketing Policies, Peyton Stensland, Jordan Bass

Journal of Applied Sport Management

All across college campuses, dozens of intercollegiate sports teams compete each year. It is assumed that attendance will vary across these sports for a number of factors. However, the impact of one organizationally controlled factor (choosing to ticket the event or not) has not been explored in the literature. In this study, the authors examined the ticketing practices of intercollegiate athletics departments. A qualitative interview approach was utilized to explore the importance and implications of ticketing practices of intercollegiate athletics departments. Terms such as reputation, legitimacy, and value were used to describe the reasoning behind whether or not to charge …

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The Reputation Playbook: Exploring How Reputation Can Be Leveraged To Improve Recruiting Effectiveness In Ncaa Men’S Basketball, Marshall J. Magnusen, Charn P. Mcallister, Jun Woo Kim, Pamela L. Perrewé, Gerald R. Ferris Jan 2017

The Reputation Playbook: Exploring How Reputation Can Be Leveraged To Improve Recruiting Effectiveness In Ncaa Men’S Basketball, Marshall J. Magnusen, Charn P. Mcallister, Jun Woo Kim, Pamela L. Perrewé, Gerald R. Ferris

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Reputation is a critical factor in the recruiting process. Organizational reputation also is a complex variable. Different dimensions of reputation may play very different roles in attracting recruits. In this study, a multidimensional (i.e., performance, character/integrity, support) reputation model is used to predict male basketball recruits’ university choice. Data were collected on the ESPN Top 100 male high school athletes recruited to NCAA Division I basketball programs for each year from 2010–2014 (n = 500). Probit regression analyses using maximum likelihood estimation predicted to what extent each reputation-based dimension affected the likelihood of an athlete selecting a university.

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Reinvestigating The Impact Of Conference Realignment On Rivalry In Intercollegiate Athletics, Cody T. Havard, Daniel L. Wann, Timothy D. Ryan Jan 2017

Reinvestigating The Impact Of Conference Realignment On Rivalry In Intercollegiate Athletics, Cody T. Havard, Daniel L. Wann, Timothy D. Ryan

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The current study investigated the influence of a U.S. intercollegiate team competing in a new conference for multiple seasons on fan perceptions of rival teams and likelihood of considering anonymous aggression toward rival teams. Fans of teams that changed conferences during conference realignment reserved stronger negative perceptions of the former rival on factors involving on-field competition and stronger negative perceptions of the current rival on factors involving off-field competition. Additionally, fans were more likely to consider committing anonymous acts of aggression against the former rival team than the current rival team. Implications and directions for future study are discussed.

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Applying Customer Lifetime Value To Major League Baseball Season Tickets, John T. Drea, Lucas Marlow, Lauren K. Mense Jan 2017

Applying Customer Lifetime Value To Major League Baseball Season Tickets, John T. Drea, Lucas Marlow, Lauren K. Mense

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Customer lifetime value (CLV) is a commonly used metric for assessing marketing performance among businesses; however, there is little evidence of the use of CLV in Major League Baseball (MLB). The authors provide a methodology for calculating CLV for season ticket buyers to properly account for all direct revenue streams for a fan attending an MLB game, including ticket, concession, parking, and auxiliary revenues. Applications for customer lifetime value for MLB teams includes measuring the effectiveness of marketing activities, identifying seating that is over/under priced, and assisting in the management of fan experiences.

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The Case For A Complete Model Of Strategic Resource Utility In Sport And Entertainment Management, Theodore M. Hayduk Iii Jan 2017

The Case For A Complete Model Of Strategic Resource Utility In Sport And Entertainment Management, Theodore M. Hayduk Iii

Journal of Applied Sport Management

A complete model of strategic resource utility can be useful for managers in the sport and entertainment industry. In recent years, this industry has been characterized by rapid evolution, high fragmentation, and ubiquitous digitalization, which all highlight the importance of making rapid and informed strategic decisions. Thus, the complete model will help managers quantify their firm’s resource bundle and use a common language during the strategic decision making process. Two industry-specific examples are given to facilitate interpretation of the complete model. Subscribe to JASM

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Tomorrow’S Fans Gone Today: Assessing Constraints To Student Attendance At College Football Games, Jason Simmons, Nels Popp, Chad Mcevoy, Steven Howell Jan 2017

Tomorrow’S Fans Gone Today: Assessing Constraints To Student Attendance At College Football Games, Jason Simmons, Nels Popp, Chad Mcevoy, Steven Howell

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The purpose of this study was to assess constraints to student attendance at college football games. Surveys were distributed on and around six college campuses (2 “Power 5”, 2 “Group of 5”, 2 FCS) during a college football game. Using intercept sampling, students not in attendance at the game were asked to rate the extent to which 33 constraints affected their decision not to attend. Results revealed differences in constraints based on conference tier affiliation, frequency of game attendance, and timing of decision not to attend. Implications for practitioners are discussed. Subscribe to JASM

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Best Practices In Athletic Donor Relations: The Ncaa Football Bowl Subdivision, Liz Wanless, David A. Pierce, J. Michael Martinez, Heather J. Lawrence-Benedict, Nick Kopka Jan 2017

Best Practices In Athletic Donor Relations: The Ncaa Football Bowl Subdivision, Liz Wanless, David A. Pierce, J. Michael Martinez, Heather J. Lawrence-Benedict, Nick Kopka

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The purpose of this investigation was to identify best practices in intercollegiate athletic donor relations for the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). Neither philanthropy research nor athletic fund-raising research presents a contemporary model of donor relations best practices. Additionally, athletic development tactics are given little attention in evidence-based literature. To investigate this topic, three rounds of the Delphi method were completed by 17 intercollegiate athletic development directors in the FBS. Forty-two best practices for donor acquisition and 38 best practices for donor retention and upgrade emerged. Implications for intercollegiate athletic development campaigns are addressed. Subscribe to …

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Enhancing Women’S Participation And Advancement In Competitive Cycling, Marlene A. Dixon, Jeffrey A. Graham, Allyson C. Hartzell, Katherine Forrest Jan 2017

Enhancing Women’S Participation And Advancement In Competitive Cycling, Marlene A. Dixon, Jeffrey A. Graham, Allyson C. Hartzell, Katherine Forrest

Journal of Applied Sport Management

While male participation in competitive cycling in the United States has grown tremendously, a lack of growth in female participation indicates there are discouraging factors at play. Critical examination of sport organizations can reveal structures and policies that exclude women from full participation. This study critically examines USA Cycling’s racing structure and policies with the goal of identifying exclusionary practices that might reduce women’s participation and advancement in competitive cycling. Using multiple data sources, including interviews with 10 competitive female cyclists, this study revealed multiple practices that strongly discourage women’s advanced participation in competitive cycling. Suggestions for practice are offered. …

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Sport And Social Development: Evaluating A Professional Sport League’S Domestic Violence And Sexual Abuse Camp, Stephen Hills, Matthew Walker Jan 2017

Sport And Social Development: Evaluating A Professional Sport League’S Domestic Violence And Sexual Abuse Camp, Stephen Hills, Matthew Walker

Journal of Applied Sport Management

We explore the use of sport to address the sensitive issue of domestic violence and sexual abuse (DVSA) by evaluating a professional sport league’s pilot DVSA Camp in the United Kingdom. The league served as a hook to engage target groups before using the sport as an analogy to educate on DVSA. We found the DVSA camp had a limited effect on participants’ knowledge about and beliefs toward DVSA, but was able to engage an at risk target group and increase awareness of DVSA. Certainly, greater engagement is required to address serious social issues if behavioral change is the goal. …

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A Peer-Relative Perspective Of The Contract Year Phenomenon Using Bayesian Analysis, Anthony Koschmann Jan 2017

A Peer-Relative Perspective Of The Contract Year Phenomenon Using Bayesian Analysis, Anthony Koschmann

Journal of Applied Sport Management

This research examines the contract year phenomenon in a new context, by evaluating player performance relative to other players, rather than the same player over time. Since ordinary least-squares (OLS) methods assume independent observations, results may be biased as player performance is dependent on other players. As such, a Bayesian approach to allow for non-independence among player performance is used to evaluate players in contract years relative to their peers. Using novel performance data of National Football League (NFL) players and controlling for player salary, position, experience, and team effects, the results show that contract year players under-perform relative to …

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What Drives Endorsement Earnings For Superstar Athletes?, Daniel Rascher, Terry Eddy, Giseob Hyun Jan 2017

What Drives Endorsement Earnings For Superstar Athletes?, Daniel Rascher, Terry Eddy, Giseob Hyun

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Athletes’ endorsement earnings receive significant attention in the trade/popular press, but the academic literature on this issue is sparse. Thus, the purpose of the study was to examine factors that drive variation in endorsement earnings. Resulting analyses indicated the Positive Q Score measure (likability) was worth about $750,000–$1 million for each unit of the scale, while the Negative Q Score measure was statistically insignificant. One unit increases in Exposure and Familiarity were worth roughly $600,000 and $200,000, respectively. These findings can be used by athletes, agents, and sponsors to determine estimates, or fair-market value, for endorsement deals.

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Students’ Search Behaviors And Career Alignment For Internships, Michael Odio Jan 2017

Students’ Search Behaviors And Career Alignment For Internships, Michael Odio

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The present study explores the internship search behaviors of undergraduate sport management students at three public universities, including how much time is spent looking for internships, what resources are used for searching, and what criteria are used when deciding on an internship. The findings affirm previous research that factors such as compensation, location, timing, and career goals are important, but also reveal how students weigh these factors and how it affects when, where, and how they search for internship opportunities. This information is beneficial for employers interested in understanding the student’s perspective of the internship search in order to increase …

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Innovative Sport Consumption Experience: An Empirical Test In Spectator And Participant Sports, Masayuki Yoshida, Makoto Nakazawa Jan 2016

Innovative Sport Consumption Experience: An Empirical Test In Spectator And Participant Sports, Masayuki Yoshida, Makoto Nakazawa

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Understanding what aspects of sport consumption experiences are necessary to be innovative to gain and sustain long-term competitive advantage is a key issue in sport marketing. Presented herein is a multi-dimensional conceptualization of innovative sport consumption experiences, including six dimensions: sport performance, aesthetic environment, facility convenience, online services, brand community, and loyalty programs. Data were collected from spectators at a professional baseball game and users of a running station in Japan. Through a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM), we assessed the construct and nomological validity of the proposed scale to measure the innovative sport consumption experience. …

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Safety Or Style? An Examination Of The Role Of Football Equipment Personnel, Brent D. Oja, Jordan R. Bass Jan 2016

Safety Or Style? An Examination Of The Role Of Football Equipment Personnel, Brent D. Oja, Jordan R. Bass

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The national recognition of concussions has increased greatly over the past de-cade. While concussions have moved to the spotlight, institutional policies and procedures are just beginning their climb into the public eye. This research delves into a sphere of sport that has to date been largely ignored, the role of equip-ment personnel. Equipment personnel were chosen due to their connection to concussions and organizational power. Organizational power has traditionally rested with those who acquire the most resources. Coaches usually represent such power. However, power can also be derived from maintaining resources. Quali-tative methodology was utilized to gauge the perceptions of …

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Exploring And Establishing A Framework For Effective Governance In European Grassroots Sports Organisations, Mark Lowther, Simone Digennaro, Antonio Borgogni, Angela Parry Lowther Jan 2016

Exploring And Establishing A Framework For Effective Governance In European Grassroots Sports Organisations, Mark Lowther, Simone Digennaro, Antonio Borgogni, Angela Parry Lowther

Journal of Applied Sport Management

This paper is based on a study that was initiated to better understand the dynamics of the grassroots sport landscape and establish a framework for effective governance practice in this important area of sport policy and management. Researchers had previously identified the value of exploring good governance specific to the nonprofit sector and in particular the unique features of informal sports organisations and small community clubs. The research methodology blended a meta-analysis of relevant literature to identify key principles followed by primary data collection to evaluate and validate the emerging framework. The main results of the study provided a typology …

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The Role Of Public Relations In College Athletics: Identifying Roles, Tasks, And Importance Of Public Relations, Brody J. Ruihley, Angela N. Pratt, Tiffany Carpenter Jan 2016

The Role Of Public Relations In College Athletics: Identifying Roles, Tasks, And Importance Of Public Relations, Brody J. Ruihley, Angela N. Pratt, Tiffany Carpenter

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Public relations (PR) is becoming increasingly important in college athletics as the frequency and severity of controversy, legal issues, and crises heighten. With many stakeholders concerned about college athletic programs, coupled with an increased media presence and skyrocketing budgets, it is imperative that athletic programs communicate effectively and efficiently in times where clarity is needed. With that, the purpose of this research is to continue learning about the roles and perceptions of PR within an athletic department, as seen through the lens of ath-letic directors. Building on the work of (Ruihley & Fall, 2009), this research seeks to discover more …

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Welcome To The Arena: An Introduction To The Special Issue On Power And Politics In Sport, Marshall J. Magnusen, Samuel Y. Todd Jan 2016

Welcome To The Arena: An Introduction To The Special Issue On Power And Politics In Sport, Marshall J. Magnusen, Samuel Y. Todd

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Organizational politics is about influence and those who influence. From Fortune 500 companies to startups and from high school athletic departments to professional sport organizations, power and organizational politics are an entrenched component of nearly all work settings. Because they are social systems, organizations tend to be political as members compete for limited resources in order to accomplish work objectives and get ahead. As such, organizational members who have an ability to influence others in order to achieve a desired objective are said to have “political skill.” This ability, scholars note, takes several dimensions: (1) social astuteness: interpreting social situations …

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The Utilization Of Political Skill As Leverage In Sport Management Research, Pamela L. Perrewé, Gerald R. Ferris Jan 2016

The Utilization Of Political Skill As Leverage In Sport Management Research, Pamela L. Perrewé, Gerald R. Ferris

Journal of Applied Sport Management

A major advancement in the political skill program of research was the development of a systematically developed and validated scale to measure political skill (i.e., referred to as the Political Skill Inventory), which reflected its four underlying dimensions of social astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and apparent sincerity. Also contributing to this expanded program of research was the publication of a comprehensive theoretical statement explaining the process dynamics and operation of the construct (Ferris et al., 2007), and also an applied book on political skill (Ferris, Davidson, & Perrewé, 2005), which discussed the implications for practice of this construct, and …

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Thriving In The Political Sport Arena: Lmx As A Mediator Of The Political Skill– Career Success Relationship, Marshall Magnusen, Jun Woo Kim Jan 2016

Thriving In The Political Sport Arena: Lmx As A Mediator Of The Political Skill– Career Success Relationship, Marshall Magnusen, Jun Woo Kim

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Organizational politics, be it in sport organizations or other business contexts, is an unavoidable aspect of work and life. Further, some individuals are better than others at navigating the political arena and advancing their careers. It is therefore important to understand what characteristics those individuals possess and how exactly those characteristics lead to desirable career outcomes. This study progresses the organizational behavioral sciences forward by examining the mediation effects of leader-member exchange (LMX) in the relationships between intern political skill and four career-related outcomes (career satisfaction, perceived external marketability, life satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness). A total of 201 sport management …

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What Are They Saying About Your Head Coach? The Relationship Among Political Skill, Reputation, And Effectiveness, Minjung Kim, Janelle E. Wells, Amy Chan Hyung Kim Jan 2016

What Are They Saying About Your Head Coach? The Relationship Among Political Skill, Reputation, And Effectiveness, Minjung Kim, Janelle E. Wells, Amy Chan Hyung Kim

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Influential leaders in competitive sport fields effectively use political skill to enhance their reputation, gain followers, and obtain support from organizations. In this study, a structural model was tested to determine the mediating role of leader reputation in the relationship between leader political skill and leader effectiveness. A total of 248 NCAA Division I assistant coaches were recruited for participation in a survey on their head coaches’ political skill, reputation, and perceived team-unit and leader-unit effectiveness. The results supported an indirect effect of head coaches’ reputation on their political skill and effectiveness, rather than a direct effect of political skill …

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Politics And Pigskins: Leader Political Support And Doug Williams’S Termination From Grambling State University, B. Parker Ellen Iii Jan 2016

Politics And Pigskins: Leader Political Support And Doug Williams’S Termination From Grambling State University, B. Parker Ellen Iii

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Management research long has benefitted from the examination of sport teams and organizations to inform its theories. Similarly, sport management research can benefit from the investigation of business organization research concepts. In the present study, a narrative case study approach is taken to review Doug Williams’s second tenure as Grambling State University’s head football coach. Archival data (i.e., media reports, university communications, and court documents) indicated that Grambling University was an environment ripe for political behavior. Further, the data reveal that Williams’s social capital and political will led to his demonstration of political support for his players, and that this …

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Sport Management Internship Quality And The Development Of Political Skill: A Conceptual Model, Simon A. Brandon-Lai, Cole G. Armstrong, Kyle S. Bunds Jan 2016

Sport Management Internship Quality And The Development Of Political Skill: A Conceptual Model, Simon A. Brandon-Lai, Cole G. Armstrong, Kyle S. Bunds

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Internships are a key component of sport organizations and the sport management curriculum. Due to the vastness of internships both in academia and the sport profession, it is imperative to understand the effectiveness of internships for both the organization and the intern. While previous research has focused on quality control, the agency’s perspective of internships, the student’s perspective, and how to link the theory to practice, scholars have yet to examine the effects of sport management internships on the development of essential professional skills and/or attributes. Given the political nature of obtaining and keeping a job in the sport business, …

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The Athlete-Student Dilemma: Exploring The Experiences Of Specially Admitted Student–Athletes At A Division Iii University, Sean Patrick Hendricks, Ane Turner Johnson Jan 2016

The Athlete-Student Dilemma: Exploring The Experiences Of Specially Admitted Student–Athletes At A Division Iii University, Sean Patrick Hendricks, Ane Turner Johnson

Journal of Applied Sport Management

In higher education, it is the responsibility of institutional leaders to ensure the success of all students (Tinto, 1993), even those who failed to meet general admission requirements. This case study explored the challenges associated with enrolling student–athletes at a Division III institution with less than desirable admission standards (Stake, 1995). This study examined 199 specially admitted student–athletes that enrolled at Rowan University between 2007 and 2011 and found that a lack of support and proper programming has placed this population in a disadvantageous position. This coupled with student engagement that was found to further isolate student–athletes from the rest …

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