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The Economic And Social Values Associated With Small South Dakota Lakes, Aaron Patrick Sundmark Jan 2019

The Economic And Social Values Associated With Small South Dakota Lakes, Aaron Patrick Sundmark

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The valuation of small fishing lakes is a vital component in understanding the importance of fishing and of recreational resources, in general. Knowing the values associated with such lakes is essential when prioritizing management activities. The overall value of a lake as a resource for human benefit is estimated as the summation of both instrumental and non-instrumental values. Instrumental values consist of economic and utilitarian values, as well as the values that a lake provides from ecosystem services. Non-instrumental values consider what the lake is worth as a good of its own, such as aesthetic, moral, and spiritual values gained …

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Effects Of Weight Loss On Gut Microbiota, Samitinjaya Dhakal Jan 2019

Effects Of Weight Loss On Gut Microbiota, Samitinjaya Dhakal

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Incidence of obesity continues to rise for several decades now. Despite the availability of the multiple weight loss programs, losing or maintaining weight remains a universal challenge. A comprehensive lifestyle modification is usually the cornerstone for achieving weight loss. A wealth of new information on gut microbial responses to diet to impact human health has introduced a new frontier in nutrition science that may help better understand inter-individual response variations to weight-loss interventions. This observational study examined the microbiota changes after weight-loss in relation to age, sex, and body-composition features in adults. A 10% reduction in body weight resulted in …

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Assessing Freshwater Mussel (Bivalvia: Unionidae) Assemblages And Effects Of Eutrophication On Pyganodon Grandis In Lakes Of Eastern South Dakota, Katherine M. Wollman Jan 2019

Assessing Freshwater Mussel (Bivalvia: Unionidae) Assemblages And Effects Of Eutrophication On Pyganodon Grandis In Lakes Of Eastern South Dakota, Katherine M. Wollman

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Globally, the family Unionidae is the most threatened group of freshwater fauna. South Dakota is well known for its agricultural production, leading to cultural eutrophication from enhanced fertilizers and sediments. This impact can alter species presence, age, growth and mortality. Objectives of this study were to 1) implement the first comprehensive lake survey of freshwater mussels in eastern South Dakota lakes and document distribution, occurrence and relative abundance, 2) evaluate relationships between age, growth and mortality of Pyganodon grandis and lake trophic state. Freshwater mussels were sampled in 2017 from 116 proportionally and randomly selected natural lakes and reservoir basins …

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Efficiency Of Standardized Ileal Digestible Lysine Utilization For Whole Body Protein Deposition In Pregnant Gilts And Sows During Early, Mid And Late Gestation, Christian Daniel Ramirez-Camba Jan 2019

Efficiency Of Standardized Ileal Digestible Lysine Utilization For Whole Body Protein Deposition In Pregnant Gilts And Sows During Early, Mid And Late Gestation, Christian Daniel Ramirez-Camba

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The total daily amino acid (AA) requirements for pregnant sows are based of Lys which is the first-limiting AA in swine diets. The SID Lys requirements are estimated by the NRC (2012) gestating sow model as the sum of those required for maintenance and protein retention divided by the efficiency of SID Lys utilization. The NRC (2012) gestating sow model assumed AA efficiency is constant across stages of gestation and parities; however, this does not reflect the change in metabolic demand of various age sows at different stages of gestation. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of …

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Long-Acting Intraductal Drug Delivery Systems For The Breast, Mibin Joseph Jan 2019

Long-Acting Intraductal Drug Delivery Systems For The Breast, Mibin Joseph

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Breast cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in women in the US. Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is a premalignant lesion that has not metastasized through the regional lymph nodes to other organs. Currently, all breast cancers including localized breast cancers are treated with the same aggressive therapy. Localized drug delivery by direct intraductal injections into the mammary ducts can achieve high drug concentration at the target site. However, poor retention of drugs in the ducts limits the successful translation of this approach to the clinic. To this end, the main goal of this dissertation is to develop …

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Novel Approaches To Evaluate And Enhance Neonatal Calf Gastrointestinal Health And Development, Fernanda Trindade Da Rosa Jan 2019

Novel Approaches To Evaluate And Enhance Neonatal Calf Gastrointestinal Health And Development, Fernanda Trindade Da Rosa

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Physiological adaptations of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) epithelial cells as well as methods to manipulate early life GIT microbiota colonization during the neonatal stage, is of great importance to the dairy industry. The first objective of this research was to optimize a method based on evaluation of bovine transcripts in fecal RNA via RTqPCR using L-selectin (SELL) as a marker for polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL), keratin 8 (KRT8) and fatty acid binding protein 2 (FABP2) for GIT enterocytes, and tight junctions in fecal RNA and GIT sections in dairy calves. To test the reliability of the fecal RNA method, fecal and …

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The Effect Of Proteolytic Queues On Antibiotic Tolerance And Persistence Cells Population In Escherichia Coli, Alawiah Abualrahi Jan 2019

The Effect Of Proteolytic Queues On Antibiotic Tolerance And Persistence Cells Population In Escherichia Coli, Alawiah Abualrahi

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

A major contributing factor to the abundance of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and failed antibiotic treatment is survival due to antibiotic tolerance and persistence. Antibiotic tolerance is a widespread phenomenon that enables cells to survive treatment without carrying a resistance gene. This phenomenon renders antibiotic treatments less effective and facilitates antibiotic resistance. We are particularly interested in proteases, responsible for degradation of proteins, because of their known relationship to tolerance and persistence. Here, we examine the effects of proteases and antibiotic survival using queueing theory, in which one type of customer competes for processing by servers, that has traditionally been applied to …

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Diet, Prebiotics And Probiotics: Effects On Gut Microbiota In Obesity And Metabolic Disorders, Thamer Aljutaily Jan 2019

Diet, Prebiotics And Probiotics: Effects On Gut Microbiota In Obesity And Metabolic Disorders, Thamer Aljutaily

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Targeting gut microbiota with diet, prebiotics, and probiotics are emerging as a promising intervention in the comprehensive nutritional approach to reducing obesity and metabolic disorders. Recent human and animal studies suggest that such intervention can promote health benefits by influencing the aspects of metabolism and immunity. However, study of the multi-role association between the diet, the host and the microbiota remains to be clarified. My dissertation attempts to clarify the problem of how gut microbiota (taxonomic composition and predicted functional capacities) affects obesity and metabolic disorders.
In chapter 2, I conducted a placebo-controlled intervention clinical trial to evaluate effects of …

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Prairie Dogs And Livestock In Rangeland Systems: Balancing Biodiversity And Production In The Northern Mixed-Grass Prairie, Jameson Robert Brennan Jan 2019

Prairie Dogs And Livestock In Rangeland Systems: Balancing Biodiversity And Production In The Northern Mixed-Grass Prairie, Jameson Robert Brennan

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

A major constraint of beef production within the Standing Rock Reservation has been identified as a reduction in rangeland quality due in large part to wide-scale colonization by black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). The desire exists within the community to design a holistic framework which incorporates livestock management with the goal of increasing production and rangeland health while still maintaining increased diversity associated with prairie dogs. Prairie dogs reduce the carrying capacity of cattle on rangelands by up to 50% on occupied hectares through direct consumption of vegetation and waste due to clipping to improve detection of predators. Livestock stocking …

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Analysis Of The Molecular Mechanisms Governing Fcγ Receptor Activation On The Surfaces Of Macrophages By Advanced Optical Microscopy, Elizabeth Michelle Bailey Jan 2019

Analysis Of The Molecular Mechanisms Governing Fcγ Receptor Activation On The Surfaces Of Macrophages By Advanced Optical Microscopy, Elizabeth Michelle Bailey

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Therapeutic antibodies are achieving new levels of therapeutic success in treating cancers and immunological disorders by antibody engagement of Fc receptor-directed immune responses. Conversely, inhibiting autoantibody induced Fc receptor activation is an attractive approach to treat autoimmune diseases. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies are often the principal subclass used in therapeutic antibodies and associated with autoimmune pathologies because of their long circulation and potent effector functions, including activation of the Fcγ Receptor (FcγR). Thus, a thorough understanding of the FcγR activation is required to improve the efficacy of immunotherapies and to mitigate autoimmunities. It is well established that FcγR clustering is …

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Evaluating And Improving Consumer Perceptions Of The Agriculture Industry, Katelyn Berndt Jan 2019

Evaluating And Improving Consumer Perceptions Of The Agriculture Industry, Katelyn Berndt

Schultz-Werth Award Papers

Consumer perceptions of the agriculture industry are increasingly important as alternative labeling and non-conventional options become more common. Consumers are seeking a more dominant role in the conversation about their food. This study explores how the agriculture industry can respond in a way that improves consumer perceptions and builds trust. The study also seeks to answer the question of whether country of birth or background affects consumer perceptions of agriculture. The research model includes a QuestionPro survey completed by students at South Dakota State University, representing consumers in the Millennial generation who are more likely to respond positively to transparent …

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Effects Of Grazing And Fire On Soil Microbial Communities And Hydrological Processes In The Northern Great Plains Grassland, Jacob Comer Jan 2019

Effects Of Grazing And Fire On Soil Microbial Communities And Hydrological Processes In The Northern Great Plains Grassland, Jacob Comer

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Historic grazing and fire regimes have been altered with the development of the livestock industry in the Northern Great Plains and have resulted in a reduction of diversity across all scales. As alternative land surface disturbances are developed to combat the loss of diversity, their potential to serve as a sustainable land surface disturbance should be evaluated. To determine the ability of an alternative grazing strategy to serve as a sustainable land surface disturbance, the reaction of the soil microbial community and soil hydrological processes should be evaluated. Objectives of this study were to: 1) evaluate the impact of alternative …

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Perceptions Of Wyoming Agriculture Teachers About The Importance Of Sae’S, Casey Styvar Jan 2019

Perceptions Of Wyoming Agriculture Teachers About The Importance Of Sae’S, Casey Styvar

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Agricultural education in the United States after the Smith Hughes Act has always included a component of the home-based project method, which now is known as a supervised agricultural experience program (SAEP). This method of instruction teaches and provides students with a hands-on learning experience inside and outside of the classroom. The benefits that students receive with this form of the curriculum are second to none. Agriculture educators realize the benefits of SAE programs and how their students expand and grow in their education and skills from having an SAE. Due to changes in student and teacher culture, it is …

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The Tortoise (Wildfire) And The Hare (Heavy Winter Grazing) For Promoting Heterogeneity And Improving Ecosystem Services, Lucas W. Zilverberg Jan 2019

The Tortoise (Wildfire) And The Hare (Heavy Winter Grazing) For Promoting Heterogeneity And Improving Ecosystem Services, Lucas W. Zilverberg

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The Northern Great Plains (NGP) mixed-grass prairie developed under fire, grazing, and periodic droughts, which created a heterogeneous landscape. Since European settlement, heterogeneous landscapes have declined due to fire suppression and the maximization of livestock production, leading to the need for an alternative management practice. Our overall project objective was to determine if heavy winter grazing could be used as an alternative to patch-burn grazing for promoting heterogeneity and improving ecosystem services in the NGP. Fire has been used very effectively in patch-burn grazing management to create heterogeneity in pastures in some areas, however burning is not readily adopted in …

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The Effect Of Edge-Of-Field Nutrient Management Practices On Microbial Concentrations In Subsurface Drainage Water And The Associated Risk Of Antibiotic Resistance Dissemination, Sara Mardani Jan 2019

The Effect Of Edge-Of-Field Nutrient Management Practices On Microbial Concentrations In Subsurface Drainage Water And The Associated Risk Of Antibiotic Resistance Dissemination, Sara Mardani

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Many in-field and edge-of-field management practices have been used to reduce nutrient loads from agricultural fields. The denitrification woodchip bioreactor (WB) is one edgeof- field management practice that has proven to be effective in removing nitrate from subsurface drainage water. The success in nitrate removal achieved with WBs has raised interest in expanding their capabilities for removing other agricultural pollutants, including phosphorus, by using other types of media like phosphorus-sorbing filters or combining these filters with woodchips to remove both nitrate and phosphorus as dual-nutrient removal systems. Despite the extensive research done on WBs and nutrient filter materials, little consideration …

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Effects Of Commercial Feed Additives On The Gut Microbiota Of Food Animals, Prakash Poudel Jan 2019

Effects Of Commercial Feed Additives On The Gut Microbiota Of Food Animals, Prakash Poudel

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Weaning is a stressful event of newborn animals which can lead to dysbiosis in the GIT causing invasion of pathogens, retarded growth, high incidence of diarrhea, and increased neonatal mortality. Since antibiotics use in livestock production have been regulated, various feed additives have been designed as antibiotic alternatives to use in newborn animal during weaning. This thesis investigated the dynamics of bacterial composition of GIT in weaned animals fed commercial feed additives by analysis of high throughput sequencing data generated from PCR-amplified DNA targeting V1-V3 region of 16S rRNA gene. Experiment 1 investigated the rumen environment of neonatal calves fed …

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Long-Term Impacts Of Manure And Inorganic Fertilization On Soil Physical, Chemical And Biological Properties, Asmita Gautam Jan 2019

Long-Term Impacts Of Manure And Inorganic Fertilization On Soil Physical, Chemical And Biological Properties, Asmita Gautam

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The intensive use of mineral fertilizers to achieve high crop yield has led to soil degradation and poor soil health. Thus, manure application as an alternative to mineral fertilizers can be an effective fertilization strategy to improve soil health and biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of long-term manure and mineral fertilizers on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. The experimental site was initiated in 2003 near Beresford, South Dakota on Egan soil under a randomized complete block design with four replications and six treatments. The study treatments included: three manure rates [low manure (LM), manure application based …

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Optimization Of Canola Co-Product Utilization In Swine, Jung Wook Lee Jan 2019

Optimization Of Canola Co-Product Utilization In Swine, Jung Wook Lee

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Canola co-products have a high content of fiber and glucosinolates. Fiber reduces nutrient utilization in pigs, whereas glucosinolates are degraded to toxic products, which interfere with liver, kidney and thyroid functions. Negative effects of fiber can potentially be alleviated by fiber-degrading enzymes, whereas negative effects of glucosinolates in pigs can potentially be alleviated through reduction in hindgut pH. However, there is a lack of information on effects of supplemental fiberdegrading enzymes on digestion and fermentation characteristics of canola coproducts for pigs. Also, there is limited information on effects of reducing hindgut pH on toxicity of glucosinolates in pigs. Four experiments …

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Evaluating Green Solvents And Techniques In Extraction Methods, Shanmugapriya Dharmarajan Jan 2019

Evaluating Green Solvents And Techniques In Extraction Methods, Shanmugapriya Dharmarajan

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Of all analytical techniques, extraction is a huge solvent-consuming process that could adversely impact the environment. Use of petroleum-based solvents for extraction of oilseeds is still a common practice, despite the potential fire hazard and the toxic water pollution. The rising awareness of chemical activities created immense need for sustainable development schemes and strategies that should address the environmental impact without compromising the yield. In the course of developing green extraction techniques, automation, alternative solvents, and selective extractions are the growing trend. This dissertation aligns with that progress by surveying green solvents, comparing their performance during oil extraction, examining a …

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Direct And Indirect Effects Of Recent Gizzard Shad Introductions In Four South Dakota Small Impoundments, Brandon Vanderbush Jan 2019

Direct And Indirect Effects Of Recent Gizzard Shad Introductions In Four South Dakota Small Impoundments, Brandon Vanderbush

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Managing fisheries requires balancing predators and prey. Prey stockings are often used when food sources may be limiting to support fish communities with multiple predators. Stocking of prey often results in increased predator size and could potentially lead to the consumption of nuisance species such as Black Bullheads Ameiurus melas. Gizzard Shad Dorosoma cepedianum are an often-stocked prey species and have been recently stocked into several small impoundments across South Dakota. One of the focuses of this study was to document the contribution of age-0 Gizzard Shad to predator fish food habits and growth. Gizzard Shad consumption varied between …

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Abundance And Diversity Of Grasshoppers And Their Ectoparasitic Mites In South Dakota, Erica Anderson Jan 2019

Abundance And Diversity Of Grasshoppers And Their Ectoparasitic Mites In South Dakota, Erica Anderson

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

In South Dakota, grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) are sporadic pests that can cause economic injury to rangeland and crops during outbreaks. It is important to know which grasshopper species are present as not all have the same potential to cause damage. USDA-APHIS conducts annual grasshopper surveys in western South Dakota rangelands, but the last published survey was in 1925. Of the potential biological control agents existing, grasshopper mites feed on grasshopper eggs and the larvae are ectoparasites of nymph and adult grasshoppers. Previous studies suggest that mite larvae reduce grasshopper fecundity and mobility, making them useful for integrated pest management of …

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Growth Performance, Metabolic And Rumen Profile, Nutrient Utilization, And Health Of Calves Fed Condensed Whey Solubles With Starter Pellets, Michaela Joy Della Jan 2019

Growth Performance, Metabolic And Rumen Profile, Nutrient Utilization, And Health Of Calves Fed Condensed Whey Solubles With Starter Pellets, Michaela Joy Della

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

A study was conducted for this thesis to evaluate the effectiveness of a new product’s ability to improve calf health and growth performance. In addition to the results from the study, this thesis also includes a literature review of immune and rumen maturation in calves and a discussion of ways to protect and encourage those fundamental progressions. For the main research project 48 dairy calves were used in a randomized complete block design study to evaluate the growth performance, rumen fermentation and metabolic profiles, nutrient utilization, and health scores when calves were supplemented Condensed Whey Solubles (CWS) with their starter …

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Receiving And Backgrounding Phase Management: The Effects Of Receiving Diet Roughage Source And Backgrounding Phase Rate Of Gain On Performance Of Feedlot Cattle, Ethan J. Blom Jan 2019

Receiving And Backgrounding Phase Management: The Effects Of Receiving Diet Roughage Source And Backgrounding Phase Rate Of Gain On Performance Of Feedlot Cattle, Ethan J. Blom

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Management of cattle during the receiving and backgrounding phases can influence the performance of feedlot cattle. The receiving phase is a stressful time for cattle entering the feedlot and quickly adapting cattle to milled feed can impact their productivity. Silages are often viewed as less desirable feedstuffs in receiving diets for newly-weaned calves. The objective of this 2-yr study was to evaluate effects of roughage source in receiving diets on cattle performance, diet mixing, and diet integrity. Steer calves (yr 1, n = 180; yr 2, n = 210) were weaned and immediately transported 580 km. Calves were allotted to …

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3d Printed Bioreactor With Optimized Stimulations For Ex-Vivo Bone Tissue Culture, Anirban Chakraborty Jan 2019

3d Printed Bioreactor With Optimized Stimulations For Ex-Vivo Bone Tissue Culture, Anirban Chakraborty

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Motivation: Long term tissue survivability ex-vivo can greatly facilitate research on the influence of external stimulus (loading, radiation, microgravity) on the tissue, including mechanisms of disease transmission and subsequent drug discoveries. Bioreactors (used to culture living tissue ex-vivo) can be a valuable tool to study cell activity during physiological processes by mimicking their in-vivo native 3D environment.
Objective Statement: We have developed a compact, 3D printed bioreactor equipped with both continuous flow-perfusion and dynamic mechanical-loading stimulations, capable of maintaining ex-vivo viability of swine cancellous bone cores over a long period. Qualitative study of the cultured cores (in terms of …

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Tropical Forest Canopy Height And Aboveground Biomass Estimation Using Airborne Lidar And Landsat-8 Data, A Sensitivity Study With Respect To Landsat-8 Data Temporal Availability, In Mai Ndombe Province, Democratic Republic Of Congo, Herve B. Kashongwe Jan 2019

Tropical Forest Canopy Height And Aboveground Biomass Estimation Using Airborne Lidar And Landsat-8 Data, A Sensitivity Study With Respect To Landsat-8 Data Temporal Availability, In Mai Ndombe Province, Democratic Republic Of Congo, Herve B. Kashongwe

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Tropical forests’ structure information, such as forest canopy height, is a key component in any estimate of carbon stock. Tropical rainforests constitute the most forested ecosystems that harbor the largest biodiversity on Earth and store more carbon (above and belowground biomass) than any other ecosystem in the world. However, estimates of forest canopy structure is lacking over most of the regions that host this ecosystem because of both the structure’s complexity of this ecosystems and the incomplete or lack of up-to-date national forest inventory data necessary to derive forest canopy height and aboveground biomass. This study explores the capability of …

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Bovine Cellular And Innate Immune Response To Hemostatic Polysaccharides, Brian Kobylkevich Jan 2019

Bovine Cellular And Innate Immune Response To Hemostatic Polysaccharides, Brian Kobylkevich

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Chronic wounds are longstanding dermal wounds that do not heal in a normal amount of time and can commonly last for over a year. These wounds plague humans and farm animals alike. Wounds are characterized by chronic inflammation and are often painful, difficult to heal, have a high recurrence rate, and are potentially debilitating. Long term wounds that do not fully heal are distressing for both humans and animals, but understandably more resources have been directed towards humans. Some treatment options for humans may be suitable for adaptation into the field of animal care. Chronic lesions such as bovine digital …

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Integration Of Molecular Techniques For The Investigation Of Bovine Respiratory Disease, Amy Abrams Jan 2019

Integration Of Molecular Techniques For The Investigation Of Bovine Respiratory Disease, Amy Abrams

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the cattle industry. The complexity of host, pathogen, and environmental factors contributing to the incidence of BRD necessitate a multifaceted approach to investigate BRD. A greater understanding of pathogenic and genetics factors associated with BRD would improve prevention and treatment of BRD. Due to the complexity of BRD, genetic technologies have been limited in their ability to identify a genetic basis for BRD. Pooling of DNA samples prior to extraction can increase the ability to conduct genotyping studies of complex traits. Once generated, new information and management …

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Localized Transdermal Delivery Of Chemopreventive Agents To The Breast, Abdulsalam Alqahtani Jan 2019

Localized Transdermal Delivery Of Chemopreventive Agents To The Breast, Abdulsalam Alqahtani

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death in women. About 1 in 8 women will develop breast cancer in their lifetime. The current systemic approaches are associated with significant side effects including some life-threatening toxicity, leading to poor patient compliance. To overcome this limitation, localized transdermal drug delivery system was investigated in the current study. In addition, majority of breast cancers originate from the ducts and lobules in the breast. Therefore, localized transdermal drug delivery system can maximize drug concentration in the breast and minimize systemic adverse effects, resulting in a potential approach for preventing and/or treating …

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Using Isoconversional Methods To Study The Effect Of Antioxidants On The Oxidation Kinetics Of Milk Fat, Khalid Ahmed Alsaleem Jan 2019

Using Isoconversional Methods To Study The Effect Of Antioxidants On The Oxidation Kinetics Of Milk Fat, Khalid Ahmed Alsaleem

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Milk fat is a versatile ingredient because of its nutritional value, functionality, and flavor. During processing and storage, milk fat may undergo oxidation resulting in many undesirable changes such as unpleasant flavor and aroma, and formation of toxic compounds. A common practice to prevent the oxidation of milk fat is by the addition of antioxidants. It is worth to mention that little is known on the effect of antioxidants on the oxidation kinetics. In this work, the effect of selected antioxidants on the oxidation kinetics of anhydrous milk fat (AMF) under non-isothermal conditions was investigated. AMF with an addition of …

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Increasing Accumulation Of Glyceollins In Soybeans Via Optimization Of The Fungal Incubation Process, Stephanie Wootton Jan 2019

Increasing Accumulation Of Glyceollins In Soybeans Via Optimization Of The Fungal Incubation Process, Stephanie Wootton

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Continual use of antibiotics in the feed of food animals was viewed a solution to the problem of disease outbreaks in livestock produced in confinement operations. This practice also improved animal performance, likely due to the reduction in sub-clinical infections. Unfortunately, this practice led to a new problem, the development of antibiotic resistant microbes. This increase in antibiotic resistance reduced the direct benefits of antibiotics in animal production. Moreover, as antibiotic resistance spread from animal to human pathogens, this practice created a major public health concern. This led the FDA to enact the Veterinary Feed Directive in 2017 that greatly …

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