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Articles 1 - 30 of 143
Full-Text Articles in Engineering
Fundamental Core Effects In Co-Cr-Fe-Ni Based High Entropy Alloys, Abhishek Mehta
Fundamental Core Effects In Co-Cr-Fe-Ni Based High Entropy Alloys, Abhishek Mehta
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
High entropy alloys (HEAs) are near equiatomic multi-principal-element-alloys (MPEAs) which are different from traditional solvent-based multicomponent alloys. Based on initial work by Yeh and Co-workers, they were proposed to exhibit four "core" effects: high entropy, sluggish diffusion, lattice distortion, and cocktail effect. Present work investigates two of the four "core" effects, i.e. high entropy and sluggish diffusion effects, in Co-Cr-Fe-Ni based transition metal high entropy alloys. Solid-to-solid diffusion couple approach was adopted to investigate, these core effects. Experimental results contradicts the "high entropy" effect based on thermodynamics analysis: that the HEAs with low entropy of mixing may be thermodynamically more …
Simultaneous Measurement Of Isotope-Free Tracer And Interdiffusion Coefficients In Sandwich Type Diffusion Couples, Esin Schulz
Simultaneous Measurement Of Isotope-Free Tracer And Interdiffusion Coefficients In Sandwich Type Diffusion Couples, Esin Schulz
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The experimental determination of the tracer or self-diffusion coefficient as a function of composition can be quite burdensome in alloys since separate measurements must be carried out for each alloy composition. A new formalism recently developed by I.V. Belova, N.S. Kulkarni, Y.H. Sohn and G.E. Murch, based on linear response theory combined with the Boltzmann–Matano method allows determination of tracer and interdiffusion coefficients simultaneously from a single, isotope-free solid to solid diffusion couple experiment. In this study, for the first time, an experimental investigation with an analytical approach based on the new formalism has been carried out in the binary …
Regolith-Based Construction Materials For Lunar And Martian Colonies, Kevin Grossman
Regolith-Based Construction Materials For Lunar And Martian Colonies, Kevin Grossman
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Humankind's ambitions of exploring our solar system and parts beyond depend heavily on our ability to collect resources from local environments at our destinations rather than bringing materials on the journey. This is a concept known as in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) and it is one that has been understood by every explorer and settler in the history of humankind. Regolith on the moon and Mars has been shown to be a particularly useful resource and has the ability to provide humans with resources including water, oxygen, construction material, fabric, radiation shielding, metals, and may more. This dissertation focuses on construction …
The Formation And Characterization Of Mesoscopic J- And H-Aggregates With Controlled Morphologies By The Co- And Templated Assembly Of Cyanine Dyes, Samuel Rhodes
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The supramolecular aggregates of π-conjugated molecules have become an area of great interest to the scientific community in recent years for their promise in biosensors and optoelectronic devices. Among various supramolecular aggregates, J- and H-aggregates of πconjugated dye molecules are particularly interesting because of their unique optical and excitonic properties that are not given by individual molecules. H-aggregates are composed of dye molecules in a face-to-face stacking, giving rise to a blue-shifted absorption band compared with the monomer band and a strong emission quenching. In contrast, J-aggregates represent an edge-toedge stacking of dye molecules, showing a red-shifted absorption band with …
Influence Of Chitosan-Alginate Scaffold Stiffness On Bone Marrow Stromal Cell Differentiation, Isabel Arias Ponce
Influence Of Chitosan-Alginate Scaffold Stiffness On Bone Marrow Stromal Cell Differentiation, Isabel Arias Ponce
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Tissue grafts are the gold standard for replacing large volume tissue defects. Yet, they present several risks, including infection, low functional outcomes, and reduced graft integrity. Tissue engineering (TE) combines cells and biomaterial scaffolds to foster tissue growth and remodeling. Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) have been shown to respond to the stiffness of their microenvironment, resulting in differentiation into different lineages. 3D porous chitosan-alginate (CA) scaffolds have been previously demonstrated for bone TE with osteoblasts and BMSCs; however, only a single scaffold composition (4 wt%) was studied. Three CA scaffold compositions (2, 4, 6 wt% CA) were produced. Scanning …
Advanced Nanoscale Characterization Of Plants And Plant-Derived Materials For Sustainable Agriculture And Renewable Energy, Mikhael Soliman
Advanced Nanoscale Characterization Of Plants And Plant-Derived Materials For Sustainable Agriculture And Renewable Energy, Mikhael Soliman
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The need for nanoscale, non-invasive functional characterization has become more significant with advances in nano-biotechnology and related fields. Exploring the ultrastructure of plant cell walls and plant-derived materials is necessary to access a more profound understanding of the molecular interactions in the systems, in view of a rational design for sustainable applications. This, in turn, relates to the pressing requirements for food, energy and water sustainability experienced worldwide. Here we will present our advanced characterization approach to study the effects of external stresses on plants, and resulting opportunities for biomass valorization with an impact on the food-energy-water nexus. First, the …
Cell Printing: An Effective Advancement For The Creation Of Um Size Patterns For Integration Into Microfluidic Biomems Devices, Megan Aubin
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The Body-on-a-Chip (BoaC) is a microfluidic BioMEMs project that aims to replicate major organs of the human body on a chip, providing an in vitro drug testing platform without the need to resort to animal model testing. Using a human model also provides significantly more accurate drug response data, and may even open the door to personalized drug treatments. Microelectrode arrays integrated with human neuronal or human cardiac cells that are positioned on the electrodes are essential components for BoaC systems. Fabricating these substrates relies heavily on chemically patterned surfaces to control the orientation and growth of the cells. Currently, …
Assessment Of Microstructure And Mechanical Behavior Of Materials And Phases Observed In Low-Enriched Uranium Monolithic Fuel Plates After Fabrication, Ryan Newell
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Low enriched uranium (LEU) fuels are being developed to reduce the use of highly enriched uranium in power generation to reduce proliferation risks. Challenges arise in providing sufficient fissile U in LEU without reactor redesign. As such, a novel monolithic fuel plate design employs LEU alloyed with 10 wt. % Mo. Throughout fabrication of these fuel plates, metallurgical transformations and reactions take place as a result of elevated temperatures during processing. The transformations include decomposition of the metastable body-centered cubic γ phase in the fuel and metallurgical interactions at interfaces between fuel plate components. This work aims to provide further …
Graphene Induced Formation Of Nanostructures In Composites, Chen Shen
Graphene Induced Formation Of Nanostructures In Composites, Chen Shen
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Graphene induced nanostructures in graphene-based composites and the performance of these composites have been explored in this study. For the metallic nanoparticles decorated graphene aerogels composites, the fabrication of hierarchically structured, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) aerogels with heavily metallic nanoparticles was realized. Higher loading of palladium nanoparticles in graphene aerogels leads to improved hydrogen gas sensing performance. For polymer derived ceramics (PDCs) composites with anisotropic electrical properties, the fabrication of composites was realized by embedding anisotropic reduced graphene oxide aerogels (rGOAs) into the PDCs matrix. Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction studies of PDCs composites with and without graphene indicate that …
Carbon Nanotube (Cnt) Metallic Composite With Focus On Processing And The Resultant Properties, Md Muktadir Billah
Carbon Nanotube (Cnt) Metallic Composite With Focus On Processing And The Resultant Properties, Md Muktadir Billah
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Metal-carbon nanotubes (CNTs) composites are the promising advanced materials that are being developed to take the advantage of the exceptional properties of CNTs. Because of the intrinsically strong in-plane atomic SP2 bonding CNTs offer high young's modulus (1.0–1.8 TPa), high tensile strength (30–200 GPa) and high elongation at break (10–30%). The thermal conductivity of individual single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) are about 6000 W/m-K and 3000 W/m-K, respectively. Therefore it is expected that by incorporation of CNTs in metal matrices multi-functional composites can be used ideally as thermal interface materials, light-weight high-strength structural materials, electric components, …
Electrode Integration Of Nanostructured Metal And Metal Oxide Materials Based On In-Situ Growth Methods For Environmental Sensors, Xiaochen Wang
Electrode Integration Of Nanostructured Metal And Metal Oxide Materials Based On In-Situ Growth Methods For Environmental Sensors, Xiaochen Wang
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
In the past decades, increased human population and activities have introduced a large amount of pollutants into the environment. Various types of conventional analytical instruments were used for monitoring the emitted chemicals with low detection limit, high accuracy, and discrimination power. However, many of these methods are laboratory-based owing to sample collection, transportation, extraction, and purification steps. To make real-time on-site monitoring possible, miniaturized sensors with various integrated elements were developed. One of the most well-known strategies is to utilize nanostructured materials with enhanced sensing properties for those devices. For a majority of the current state of art devices, the …
Study Of Surface Passivation Behavior Of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, Haider Ali
Study Of Surface Passivation Behavior Of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, Haider Ali
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
To achieve efficiencies approaching the theoretical limit of 29.4% for industrially manufactured solar cells based on crystalline silicon, it is essential to have very low surface recombination velocities at both the front and rear surfaces of the silicon substrate. Typically, the substrate surfaces feature contacted and uncontacted regions, and recombination should be limited for both to maximize the energy conversion efficiency. Uncontacted silicon surfaces are often passivated by the deposition of silicon nitride (SiNx) or an aluminum oxide film with SiNx as capping layer (Al2O3/SiNx stack). Further, proper surface preparation and cleaning of Si wafers prior to deposition also plays …
Interaction Between Carbon Nanotubes And Metals (Al, Cu) And The Effects On Resultant Properties Of The Hybrid Materials, Jingyin Jiang
Interaction Between Carbon Nanotubes And Metals (Al, Cu) And The Effects On Resultant Properties Of The Hybrid Materials, Jingyin Jiang
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Due to the exceptional strength, stiffness and excellent electrical and thermal properties, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been regarded as promising candidates for advanced nanoelectronics and multifunctional nanocomposites. In this dissertation, the interaction of CNTs with metals have been investigated and the resultant electrical conduction have been analyzed, aiming to develop innovative avenues to best utilize CNTs' potential. In order to do so, quantum mechanics calculations have been carried out to study that how to obtain greater electrical conduction by doping metals (Cu, Al) which tailor the electronic structure of three different types of metal-CNT interactions, : 1) encapsulation of atoms …
Printable Carbon Nanotube Based Multifunctional Nanocomposites For Strain Sensing And Self-Heating, Xin Wang
Printable Carbon Nanotube Based Multifunctional Nanocomposites For Strain Sensing And Self-Heating, Xin Wang
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The unique properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) represent a potential for developing a piezo-resistive strain sensor and a resistive heating sheet with a smart structure. Conventional fabrication techniques of CNT based nanocomposites such as molding, casting or spray coating lack the ability to control the geometry and properties of fabricated composites. In order to meet the various requirements of strain sensing or self-heating applications, nanocomposites with complex geometry and controllable properties are in high demand. Digital printing technique is able to fabricate CNT films with precisely controlled geometry with the help of computer aided design, and their properties could also …
Synthesis And Characterization Of Stable And Metastable Phases In Ni- And Fe-Based Alloy Systems By Mechanical Alloying, Ahmed Al-Joubori
Synthesis And Characterization Of Stable And Metastable Phases In Ni- And Fe-Based Alloy Systems By Mechanical Alloying, Ahmed Al-Joubori
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Mechanical Alloying (MA) is a process that involves repeated cold welding, fracturing and rewelding of powder particles in a high-energy ball mill and has been used extensively to synthesize both stable (equilibrium) and metastable phases in a number of alloy systems. This is due to its ability to achieve many effects simultaneously, viz., reduction in grain size, introduction of a variety of crystal defects, disordering of the lattice, and modifying the crystal structures of materials; all these allowing alloying and phase transformations to occur in powders. In this Dissertation, we have synthesized a number of different alloy phases in Ni- …
Phase Transformation And Growth Kinetics In Reaction Zone Between Uranium Alloy And Zirconium Diffusion Barrier, Young Joo Park
Phase Transformation And Growth Kinetics In Reaction Zone Between Uranium Alloy And Zirconium Diffusion Barrier, Young Joo Park
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
U-10wt.%Mo (U10Mo) alloy as a part of monolithic fuel system is being developed under Material Management and Minimization Reactor Conversion (MMMRC) program, tasked with replacing high-enriched uranium (HEU) fuel with low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel in civilian research and test reactors. Use of U10Mo fuel alloy entails a Zr diffusion barrier to avoid the undesirable interdiffusion and reactions between the U10Mo and Al-alloy cladding. To better understand the interaction between these fuel system constituents, microstructural development and diffusion kinetics in U-Mo-Zr, U-Zr and fuel plate assembly processed by co-rolling and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) were investigated using a variety of analytical …
A Study Of Crystallization Behavior In Phase Separated Chalcogenide Glasses, Andrew Buff
A Study Of Crystallization Behavior In Phase Separated Chalcogenide Glasses, Andrew Buff
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Chalcogenide glasses (ChG) are known for their wide transmission ranges in the infrared and for their high refractive indices. However, applications for ChG are often limited by their poor thermal/mechanical properties. Precipitating a secondary crystalline phase in the glass matrix can improve these properties, but too much crystallization and/or large or multiple phase crystallites can lead to a loss in infrared (IR) transmission. Controlled crystallization can be used to tune the properties of these glasses. This work examines the crystallization behavior in phase separated chalcogenide glasses in the GeSe2-As2Se3-PbSe glass system. Specifically, the research presented in this thesis work has …
Fabrication And Investigation Of An Enzyme-Free, Nanoparticle-Based Biosensor For Hydrogen Peroxide Determination, Craig Neal
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Electrochemical biosensors often employ enzymes as detection elements. These sensors are highly selective towards target analytes, however the scope of their application is limited by the poor stability of the enzyme. In this study, multi-valent inorganic cerium oxide nanoparticles were used as detection elements for the analysis of hydrogen peroxide. The electrochemical response of the cerium oxide towards hydrogen peroxide analyte is defined through cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. This response was found to be dependent on nanoparticle Ce3+:Ce4+ redox state ratio and this property is exploited to fabricate a biosensor. As produced, the biosensor demonstrated sensitivity at picomolar analyte concentrations. …
Stress-Induced Phase Change Sintering: A Novel Approach To The Fabrication Of Barium Chloride Transparent Ceramic Scintillators, William Shoulders
Stress-Induced Phase Change Sintering: A Novel Approach To The Fabrication Of Barium Chloride Transparent Ceramic Scintillators, William Shoulders
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
For the precise in-field identification of dangerous radioisotopes, the desire for higher resolution, cheaper, and more rugged gamma-ray scintillator detectors has pushed the materials science community to investigate new compounds and processing techniques. One particular solution is Eu:BaCl2 transparent ceramics processed by the novel phase-change sintering technique. Typically, optical transparency in BaCl2 would be limited by birefringence scattering at grain boundaries due to mismatch in refractive index. Traditional ceramic processing routes would also predispose this volatile and hygroscopic material to the formation of defects, which interrupt the energy transfer in the scintillation process. Literature shows that these challenges have prevented …
Nanoengineered Energy Harvesting And Storage Devices, Chao Li
Nanoengineered Energy Harvesting And Storage Devices, Chao Li
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Organic and perovskite solar cells have recently attracted significant attention due to its flexibility, ease of fabrication and excellent performance. In order to realize even better performance for organic and perovskite solar cells, rejuvenated effort towards developing nanostructured electrodes and high quality active layer is necessary. In this dissertation, several strategic directions of enhancing the performance of organic and perovskite solar cells are investigated. An introduction and background of organic and perovskite solar cells, which includes motivation, classification and working principles, nanostructured electrode materials and solvent effect on active materials, and devices fabrication, are presented. A facile method, called Spin-on …
Interdiffusion, Crystallography And Mechanical Properties Of Nickel Manganese Gallium Alloys, Le Zhou
Interdiffusion, Crystallography And Mechanical Properties Of Nickel Manganese Gallium Alloys, Le Zhou
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
NiMnGa Heusler alloys, functioning as either ferromagnetic shape memory alloys or mangetocaloric materials, have both practical applications and fundamental research value. The functional properties of NiMnGa alloys are closely related to the martensitic transformation from high temperature austenitic phase to low temperature martensitic phase. Alloys can be used for room temperature or high temperature applications, depending on the martensitic transformation temperature, which is compositional sensitive. The microstructure and crystallography of the martensites can be very complex but are crucial to the optimization of the material performance. In this study, for the first time, a combinatorial study by combining solid-to-solid diffusion …
Electrical Properties Of Polymer-Derived Silicoaluminum Carboxide Ceramics (Sialco) And Their Applications In Micro-Sensors, Yejie Cao
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Polymer-derived ceramic (PDC) is a new kind of material which is directly synthesized by the thermal decomposition of polymer precursors. Due to their unique structure, which consists of the amorphous matrix phase and free-carbon phase, PDCs exhibit many distinguished properties even at high-temperature environment such as oxidation and creep resistance, amorphous semiconducting behavior as well as piezoresistive behavior. These outstanding properties make PDCs become promising candidates for various applications especially for high-temperature microsensors. However, most common used PDCs in the market now are SiC, SiCN and Si(M)CN ceramics, the high price and toxicity of their raw materials as well as …
Nanoarchitectured Energy Storage Devices, Zenan Yu
Nanoarchitectured Energy Storage Devices, Zenan Yu
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Supercapacitors, the devices that connect the gap between batteries and conventional capacitors, have recently attracted significant attention due to their high specific capacitance, substantially enhanced power and energy densities, and extraordinary cycle life. In order to realize even better performance with supercapacitors, rejuvenated effort towards developing nanostructured electrodes is necessary. In this dissertation, several strategic directions of nanoarchitecturing the electrodes to enhance the performance of supercapacitors are investigated. An introduction and background of supercapacitors, which includes motivation, classification and working principles, recent nanostructured electrode materials studies, and devices fabrication, are initially presented. A facile method, called Spin-on Nanoprinting (SNAP), to …
Phase Transformations And Microstructural Evolution In The U-10 Wt.% Mo Alloy With Various Zr Additions At 900c And 650c, Nicholas Eriksson
Phase Transformations And Microstructural Evolution In The U-10 Wt.% Mo Alloy With Various Zr Additions At 900c And 650c, Nicholas Eriksson
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The Reduced Enrichment for Research and Test Reactor (RERTR) now known as the Material Minimization and Management Reactor Control program (MMMRC) seeks to replace the use of highly enriched uranium (HEU) fuels used in research and test nuclear reactors around the world. The low enriched uranium (LEU) fuels must have fissionable uranium densities comparable to the HEU fuels. After extensive investigation by various researchers around the world, the U-Mo alloys were selected as a promising candidate. The Mo alloyed with U allows for the stabilization of the face-centered cubic ?-U phase, which demonstrated favorable irradiation behavior. However, deleterious diffusional interaction …
Adsorption Behaviour Of Polyacrylic Acid On Cerium Oxide Nanostructures: Experimental And Predictive Model, Ali Haghighat Mesbahi
Adsorption Behaviour Of Polyacrylic Acid On Cerium Oxide Nanostructures: Experimental And Predictive Model, Ali Haghighat Mesbahi
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Cerium oxide-based slurries are crucial for chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) in electronic industry. For these slurry systems, poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) is heavily utilized to provide colloidal stability. Some of the important parameters in the colloid stability are molecular weight (MW) and concentration of stabilizer, size of the nanoparticle in the slurry and the pH of system. By determining the colloidal stability of a discrete number of slurry formulations and relating these to certain slurry component parameters, a possible model can be produced to predict the influence of these parameters on the particle stability. Direct quantification of colloidal stability is difficult, …
Porosity Removal Of Cm247 Ni-Base Superalloy Using Thermal Heat Treatment Without Applied Pressure, Chad Heinrich
Porosity Removal Of Cm247 Ni-Base Superalloy Using Thermal Heat Treatment Without Applied Pressure, Chad Heinrich
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Blade and vane components made with Ni-base superalloys play a vital role in hot section of gas turbine engines. Removal of porosity in cast Ni-base superalloys is a critical process consideration since porosity from casting process can have deleterious effects on the performance and integrity of superalloy component. Still, the cost-efficient processing of Ni-base superalloys that are technologically acceptable, or superior, can contribute significantly to the life-cycle cost of gas turbine engines. The purpose of this thesis was to explore the possibility of eliminating the hot isostatic pressing cycle in a CM247 Ni-base superalloy processing. For cast CM247, conventional processing …
Graphene Oxide Reinforcement In Plasma Sprayed Nickel-5%Aluminum Coatings, David Ward
Graphene Oxide Reinforcement In Plasma Sprayed Nickel-5%Aluminum Coatings, David Ward
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Metallic plasma sprayed coatings are widely used in the aerospace industry for repair on worn engine components. However, the inherent defects in these coatings limit the variety of repairs and reduce the service life of the repaired parts. A potential solution to overcome this problem is to mix small amounts of inexpensive graphene oxide in the powder feedstock. The incredible strength to weight ratio of graphene oxide makes it a viable additive to improve mechanical properties of metallic plasma sprayed coatings. The powder system chosen for this research is Nickel-5Aluminum since it is a common coating for such repairs. The …
An Uncooled Mid-Wave Infrared Detector Based On Optical Response Of Laser-Doped Silicon Carbide., Geunsik Lim
An Uncooled Mid-Wave Infrared Detector Based On Optical Response Of Laser-Doped Silicon Carbide., Geunsik Lim
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
This dissertation focuses on an uncooled Mid-Wave Infra-Red (MWIR) detector was developed by doping an n-type 4H-SiC with Ga using the laser doping technique. 4H-SiC is one of the polytypes of crystalline silicon carbide, a wide bandgap semiconductor. The dopant creates an energy level of 0.30 eV, which was confirmed by optical spectroscopy of the doped sample. This energy level corresponds to the MWIR wavelength of 4.21 µm. The detection mechanism is based on the photoexcitation of electrons by the photons of this wavelength absorbed in the semiconductor. This process modifies the electron density, which changes the refraction index and, …
Electroplated Micro- And Nanoscale Structures For Emitters And Sensors, Xiaochen Wang
Electroplated Micro- And Nanoscale Structures For Emitters And Sensors, Xiaochen Wang
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
In the electroplating process, dissolved metal cations are reduced by electrical current to a form a coherent metal coating on an electrode. Therefore, electroplating is primarily applied to modify the surface properties of an object (e.g. abrasion and wear resistance, corrosion protection, lubricity, aesthetic qualities, etc.), but also be applied to build up high aspect ratio structures on undersized parts or to form devices by electroforming. Compared with other common MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) metal device fabrication techniques, such as vapor depositions, electroplating has several outstanding advantages. First, the fabrication process is cost-efficient because electroplating process can be set up easily …
Microstructure And Chemistry Evaluation Of Direct Metal Laser Sintered 15-5 Ph Stainless Steel, Kevin Coffy
Microstructure And Chemistry Evaluation Of Direct Metal Laser Sintered 15-5 Ph Stainless Steel, Kevin Coffy
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
15-5PH stainless steel is an important alloy in the aerospace, chemical, and nuclear industries for its high strength and corrosion resistance at high temperature. Thus, this material is a good candidate for processing development in the direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) branch of additive manufacturing. The chemistry and microstructure of this alloy processed via DMLS was compared to its conventionally cast counterpart through various heat treatments as part of a characterization effort. The investigation utilized optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-Ray diffractometry (XRD), energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (EDS) and glow discharge atomic emission spectrometry (GDS) …