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Articles 61 - 90 of 98
Full-Text Articles in Social Psychology
Understanding Whites' Colorblind Racial Attitudes : The Role Of Intergroup Anxiety And Psychological Flexibility, Alexa Hanus
Understanding Whites' Colorblind Racial Attitudes : The Role Of Intergroup Anxiety And Psychological Flexibility, Alexa Hanus
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Colorblind racial attitudes are described as the denial or minimization of race and racism (Neville et al., 2000), which may silence accounts of racial discrimination and lead White Americans to ignore their racial privileges, ultimately supporting and reproducing racial inequality in the US (Bonilla-Silva, 2001). Alarmingly, colorblind attitudes are the dominant racial ideology among White Americans (Lewis, 2004), and inform the way White adults talk to their children about race (Schofeild, 2007). The current study explored the development and maintenance of Whites' colorblind attitudes, using ideas from Stephan and Stephan's (1985) theory of intergroup anxiety, Helm's (1995) theory of White …
The Dieting Paradox : Using I³ Theory To Explain Counter-Regulatory Eating, Lindsay C. Morton
The Dieting Paradox : Using I³ Theory To Explain Counter-Regulatory Eating, Lindsay C. Morton
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Counter-regulatory eating occurs when dieters engage in disinhibited overconsumption after a transgression of their diet. It may be one reason why efforts to control one's weight through dietary restriction so often fail. Unfortunately, the causal mechanisms behind this behavior are a source of contention. To resolve the disagreement over what exactly triggers counter-regulatory eating, this dissertation applied I3 theory, which posits that three factors interact to determine disinhibited behavior: instigation, impellance, and inhibition. Three-hundred twenty-two female undergraduate participants were recruited for participation in this study. Instigation was examined using the traditional milkshake pre-load, in which participants' perceptions of caloric content …
What You See Is What You Forget : Alcohol Cue Exposure, Affect, And The Misinformation Effect, Camille Crocken Barnes
What You See Is What You Forget : Alcohol Cue Exposure, Affect, And The Misinformation Effect, Camille Crocken Barnes
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Previous research has suggested that both alcohol cues and positive affect increase the tendency to incorporate false information into memory. This series of studies sought to determine if affect mediates the influence of alcohol cues on incorporation of false information into memory. Initially, a pilot study was completed to determine the individual differences that predict which individuals experience a heightening of positive affect following visualization exercises involving alcoholic beverages. Next, a study was conducted to determine if this affect increase from exposure to alcohol cues leads to increased acceptance of misinformation into memory. Participants' memories were tested while they were …
Performance = Ability X Motivation : Exploring Untested Moderators Of A Popular Model, Christopher Patrick Cerasoli
Performance = Ability X Motivation : Exploring Untested Moderators Of A Popular Model, Christopher Patrick Cerasoli
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
It seems a self-evident truism to many that performance at school and work is determined by the extent to which one "can do" and one "will do" the task effectively. Grounded in this logic, research, practice, and textbooks in industrial-organizational psychology over the past 60 years have supported the notion that performance is a multiplicative function of ability and motivation, such that P = f(AXM) (where P = performance, A = ability, and M = motivation). In this study, I addressed four issues surrounding this multiplicative model. First, I began by exploring whether and when multiplicative (versus simpler additive) models …
Public And Private Goal Commitment : Self-Control And Choice, Rebekah L. Layton
Public And Private Goal Commitment : Self-Control And Choice, Rebekah L. Layton
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Public precommitment to a goal may drive goal achievement. This work explores the effects of public precommitment on goal achievement using the limited-resource model of self-control. Goal commitment which alters future choices available by inflicting a self-imposed cost for giving up is called precommitment. Public commitment to a goal can be viewed as precommitment by imposing a social cost for failure (e.g., anticipated embarrassment). This may facilitate goal pursuit through two processes: First, by shifting the cost earlier in the process via the structural route in which goal-setting processes may deplete self-control resources initially (Studies 1 and 2), while improving …
Knowledge Of Juvenile Sex Offender Registration Laws As A Predictor Of Adolescent Sexual Behavior, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Margaret C. Stevenson, Tisha Ra Wiley
Knowledge Of Juvenile Sex Offender Registration Laws As A Predictor Of Adolescent Sexual Behavior, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Margaret C. Stevenson, Tisha Ra Wiley
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Because juveniles can now be registered as sex offenders, we conducted a pilot study to investigate awareness of these policies and sexual behavior histories in a convenience sample of 53 young adults (ages 18 to 23, 79% women). These preliminary data revealed that 42% percent of participants were unaware that youth under the age of 18 can be registered as sex offenders, and when informed that they can be, participants were unaware of the breadth of adolescent sexual behavior that warrants registration. Furthermore, those unaware of juvenile registration policies, compared to those who were aware, were marginally more likely to …
Effects Of Construal Level On The Reliance On Affect Versus Substance, Ellen O'Malley
Effects Of Construal Level On The Reliance On Affect Versus Substance, Ellen O'Malley
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The influence of construal level on judgment and decision-making is often seen in consumer research. However, the effect of construal level on preferences for evaluative inputs rather than final products is less explored. Two experiments were conducted to examine whether construal level affects the degree to which individuals rely on either affective or substantive information when making evaluative judgments; specifically, that abstract construals increase reliance on affective information, whereas concrete construals increase reliance on substantive information. Experiment 1 provided evidence for a relative preference for affective versus substantive information when engaged in abstract and concrete construals, respectively. Experiment 2 replicated …
The Case For Character : A Reply To Situationism, Brandon Lee
The Case For Character : A Reply To Situationism, Brandon Lee
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The notion of character is a familiar and prominent part of ethical theorizing, and of our everyday discourse. Character is used to explain how people act, to predict what they will do, to judge whether they ought to be trusted, and utilized in a multitude of other ways. A camp of philosophers dubbed the "Situationists", however, argue that research in social psychology shows the notion of character as we traditionally understand it is empirically unsupported, and consequently that all our discourse and ethical thought involving character is gravely mistaken. Instead, these philosophers contend that what influences and informs our perception …
Understanding Jurors’ Judgments In Cases Involving Juvenile Defendants: Effects Of Confession Evidence And Intellectual Disability, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms
Understanding Jurors’ Judgments In Cases Involving Juvenile Defendants: Effects Of Confession Evidence And Intellectual Disability, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Juveniles are at heightened risk for falsely confessing to crimes, particularly if they are intellectually disabled. We conducted a mock trial experiment to investigate the effects of a juvenile defendant’s confession and status as intellectually disabled on jurors’ decision making. As expected, jurors discounted a juvenile’s coerced confession: Jurors’ judgments were similar for a juvenile who was perceived to have confessed under coercion and a juvenile who did not confess. In general, these effects were explained by the fact that, compared to a juvenile who was perceived as having confessed voluntarily, a juvenile who was perceived as having confessed under …
Do It Because I Said So ... Please? : The Connection Between Supervisor Interpersonal Justice, Perceived Power, And Employee Reactions, Ellen Weissblum
Do It Because I Said So ... Please? : The Connection Between Supervisor Interpersonal Justice, Perceived Power, And Employee Reactions, Ellen Weissblum
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The purpose of this set of studies was to investigate the linkage between interpersonally just or unjust behavior on the part of a supervisor and the perception of referent, coercive, and legitimate power as perceived by subordinates. It was proposed that lower levels of interpersonal justice on the part of a supervisor would result in the perception that the supervisor possessed a greater degree of coercive power and a lower degree of referent power. It was furthermore proposed that, consistent with prior research, referent power would be positively related to task commitment; coercive power would be positively related to reactance; …
Women, Alcoholics Anonymous, And Related Mutual Aid Groups: Review And Recommendations For Research, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Ericka B. Adams
Women, Alcoholics Anonymous, And Related Mutual Aid Groups: Review And Recommendations For Research, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Ericka B. Adams
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Recent literature reviews and meta-analyses have supported the effectiveness of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) in helping members stop drinking and maintain sobriety. Despite the extensive body of research on AA, less attention has focused on differences in the efficacy of the program for and experiences of women as compared to men. Such a focus is warranted given that there are significant gender differences in the development and progression of alcoholism, impact of drinking, and response to treatment. This review synthesizes results of extant research on women in AA and similar mutual aid groups focused on problem drinking to describe the state …
Trauma Severity And Defensive Emotion-Regulation Reactions As Predictors Of Forgetting Childhood Trauma, Bette L. Bottoms, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Michelle A. Epstein, Matthew J. Badanek
Trauma Severity And Defensive Emotion-Regulation Reactions As Predictors Of Forgetting Childhood Trauma, Bette L. Bottoms, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Michelle A. Epstein, Matthew J. Badanek
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Using a retrospective survey, we studied a sample of 1679 college women to determine whether reports of prior forgetting of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and other traumas could be explained by trauma severity and individual differences in the use of defensive emotion-regulation reactions (i.e., repressive coping, dissociation, and fantasy proneness). Among victims of physical abuse (but not sexual abuse or other types of trauma), those who experienced severe abuse and used defensive reactions were sometimes more likely to report temporary forgetting of abuse, but other times less likely to report forgetting. We also found unanticipated main effects of trauma severity …
Stereotype Threat In Criminal Interrogations: Why Innocent Black Suspects Are At Risk For Confessing Falsely, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Stereotype Threat In Criminal Interrogations: Why Innocent Black Suspects Are At Risk For Confessing Falsely, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Little theoretical attention has been paid to evidence that Blacks are overrepresented in samples of false confessors compared to Whites. One possible explanation is that innocent Black suspects experience stereotype threat in interrogations and that this threat causes Black suspects to experience more arousal, self-regulatory efforts, and cognitive load compared to White suspects. These psychological mechanisms could lead innocent Black suspects to display more nonverbal behaviors associated with deception and, ironically, increase the likelihood that police investigators perceive them as guilty. In response, investigators might engage in more coercive tactics and exert more pressure to confess on Black suspects than …
The Effects Of Revictimization On Coping And Depression In Female Sexual Assault Victims, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Sarah E. Ullman
The Effects Of Revictimization On Coping And Depression In Female Sexual Assault Victims, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Sarah E. Ullman
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
To examine the effects of being revictimized, 555 women completed 2 mail surveys 1 year apart, reporting their experiences of sexual assault, the strategies they used to cope with those experiences, and feelings of depression. Path analyses, controlling for baseline coping and depression, revealed that those who were revictimized during the study reported using more maladaptive and adaptive coping strategies than did those who were not revictimized (β = .11 and β = .16, respectively). Further, women who were revictimized reported more depression than others (β = .15). This effect was explained in part by revictimized women's increased maladaptive coping. …
Jurors’ Perceptions Of Juvenile Offenders Tried In Adult Criminal Court, Margaret C. Stevenson, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms, Katlyn M. Sorenson, Sylvia P. Perry
Jurors’ Perceptions Of Juvenile Offenders Tried In Adult Criminal Court, Margaret C. Stevenson, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms, Katlyn M. Sorenson, Sylvia P. Perry
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
No abstract provided.
Self-Regulatory Decisions As A Function Of Goal-Performance Discrepancy And Self-Efficacy : A Time To Revise And A Time To Exert, Levi Alexander Boren
Self-Regulatory Decisions As A Function Of Goal-Performance Discrepancy And Self-Efficacy : A Time To Revise And A Time To Exert, Levi Alexander Boren
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The present research proposed that self-regulatory decisions, goal revision and resource allocation are primarily a function of performance discrepancy and self-efficacy. Further, it was proposed that in multiple-goal environments, allocation decisions would be a function of the motivational variables related to concurrent goals. Two studies were conducted, one in the laboratory and the other in a field setting to test hypotheses related to these propositions. Findings from both studies demonstrated that the performance discrepancy X self-efficacy interaction is a key determinant of self-regulatory decisions. In multiple goal environments, relative measures of self-efficacy, performance-discrepancy, and goal commitment were predictive whereas absolute …
Why Am I Left Out? : Interpretations Of Exclusion Affect Anti-Social And Pro-Social Behaviors, Amber Debono
Why Am I Left Out? : Interpretations Of Exclusion Affect Anti-Social And Pro-Social Behaviors, Amber Debono
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Two major inconsistencies in social exclusion research have left a gap in our understanding of how people perceive the exclusion experience. One discrepancy involves a meta-analysis that indicated exclusion usually causes negative emotions (most notably anger and sadness), whereas another meta-analysis determined there was no emotional impact from exclusion. Another inconsistency in exclusion literature is that whereas multitude of studies that indicate exclusion increases aggressive behavior, a few studies have suggested that exclusion increases pro-social behavior. Based on these mixed findings, I proposed that when excluded individuals perceive the excluders to dislike or disrespect them, these perceptions lead to different …
Prospective Changes In Attributions Of Self-Blame And Social Reactions To Women’S Disclosures Of Adult Sexual Assault, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Sarah E. Ullman
Prospective Changes In Attributions Of Self-Blame And Social Reactions To Women’S Disclosures Of Adult Sexual Assault, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Sarah E. Ullman
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
The present longitudinal study examined relations between self-blame attributions and social reactions to disclosure in a community sample of adult sexual assault victims (N = 555). Cross-lagged panel analyses showed that neither characterological self-blame nor behavioral self-blame related to negative social reactions over the 1-year follow-up period. In contrast, characterological but not behavioral self-blame predicted fewer positive reactions over time. Although positive reactions did not reduce self-blame, negative reactions led to greater characterological, but not behavioral, self-blame during the course of the study. Thus, relations between self-blame and social reactions were not reciprocal but rather quite complex. The effects …
Vulnerability And Protective Factors For Sexual Assault, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Vulnerability And Protective Factors For Sexual Assault, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Approximately 1 in 5 women experience sexual assaults in adulthood during their lives (see Post, this volume, for review), including experiences of unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted rape, and completed rape that result from threat, force, or incapacitation from alcohol or drugs (either willingly or unwillingly consumed).
Building Perceived Organizational Support Through Justice : The Mediating Effect Of Perceived Organizational Support On The Relationship Between Justice Interventions And Organizational Outcomes, Maria Belen Arboleda
Building Perceived Organizational Support Through Justice : The Mediating Effect Of Perceived Organizational Support On The Relationship Between Justice Interventions And Organizational Outcomes, Maria Belen Arboleda
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Research on perceived organizational support has focused on theoretical antecedents and organizational outcomes, however to date there is limited research on practical interventions to enhance POS. The present study examined, in a lab setting, whether two operationalizations of justice, provision of information (informational justice) and encouraging suggestions (procedural justice) influence the extent to which employees feel supported by their organization. Further, this study explored the mediating effect of POS on the relationship between these justice interventions and organizational outcomes supported in the literature, affective commitment, extra-role performance and in-role performance. One hundred and seventy three participants were randomly assigned to …
Individualized Intimacy? : The Negotiation Of Self And Other In Heterosexual Relationships, Daniel Santore
Individualized Intimacy? : The Negotiation Of Self And Other In Heterosexual Relationships, Daniel Santore
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Sociologists working in various scholarly traditions posit an individualization of contemporary romantic relationships occurring in Western societies over the passed several decades. This dissertation uses North American and European theoretical perspectives on "individualized intimacy" as the basis for a qualitative interview study of 45 women and men involved in heterosexual relationships. In keeping with the theoretical perspectives that ground the study, the interviews focus on how concepts of self-development, communication, gender and social class collide with one another in, and serve to shape, respondents' narratives of self and other in intimacy. Findings demonstrate that: (a) regarding gender, women and men …
Examining The Persuasive Effect Of Metaphor Use In Psychotherapy : An Experimental Test Of Contributing Factors, Walter A. Kendall
Examining The Persuasive Effect Of Metaphor Use In Psychotherapy : An Experimental Test Of Contributing Factors, Walter A. Kendall
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Research suggests that metaphors can facilitate attitude change in psychotherapy. Based on social influence theory (Strong, 1968) and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) of persuasion, this analogue study tested the impact of metaphor use in the context of advice as a therapeutic intervention. In an experimental design, 138 adult participants were randomly assigned to observe a brief videotaped vignette in which a therapist's advice to a client either did or did not include a novel metaphor. After observing the video, participants completed a measure of therapist credibility, the Counselor Rating Form-Short Version (CRF-S; Corrigan & Schmidt, …
Self-Control Conservation : A Closer Look At The Underlying Process, Nicholas Allegretti Freeman
Self-Control Conservation : A Closer Look At The Underlying Process, Nicholas Allegretti Freeman
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Preliminary evidence suggests that when individuals believe that they will have to exert self-control in the near future, their performance on an intervening self-control task suffers so that limited self-control resources are conserved for later use (Muraven, Shmueli, & Burkley, 2006). The current research sought to further clarify the extent to which beliefs about the limited nature of self-control contribute to this conservation effect. Specifically, it is unclear whether simply recognizing that a task requires self-control is enough to prompt individuals to approach the task with a conservation strategy, or, if conservation strategies are only pursued in reaction to resources …
Jurors And Social Loafing: Factors That Reduce Participation During Jury Deliberations, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Jurors And Social Loafing: Factors That Reduce Participation During Jury Deliberations, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
The American jury system rests on the fundamental assumption that jurors will engage in a thorough analysis of facts and robust debate to ensure that verdicts are reliable. Research demonstrates, however, that this expectation is rarely met. All jurors do not participate equally in deliberations. This may be explained in part by social loafing, or the withdrawal of effort that may occur when an individual works in a group relative to when the individual works alone. Despite evidence that jurors do not participate equally during jury deliberations, an analysis of factors contributing to participation, or the lack thereof, has not …
Understanding Alcohol-Related Sexual Assaults: Characteristics And Consequences, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Understanding Alcohol-Related Sexual Assaults: Characteristics And Consequences, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Sexual assaults commonly involve alcohol use, but little is known about alcohol’s effects on many aspects of assaults and their aftermath. We investigated characteristics of victims, perpetrators, and assaults as a function of whether alcohol was involved in the assault, as well as differences in women’s post-assault experiences. Assaults prior to which only perpetrators were drinking differed not only from non-alcohol-related assaults, but also from those prior to which both perpetrators and victims were drinking. Understanding the effects of alcohol-related assaults is important for identifying victims who should be targeted for mental health and substance use interventions.
Alcohol-Related Help Seeking In Problem Drinking Women Sexual Assault Survivors, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Alcohol-Related Help Seeking In Problem Drinking Women Sexual Assault Survivors, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Correlates of alcohol-related help seeking were studied in women sexual assault survivors who were current problem drinkers (N = 526) in a large metropolitan area in 2002-2003. Volunteer participants completed several valid and reliable instruments, which assessed alcohol use and misuse and related help seeking (i.e., the TWEAK, GFM, and MAST). Data were analyzed using logistic regression models. Results suggest that correlates of women survivors’ alcohol-related help seeking vary depending on the specific source. Limitations and implications are noted and recommendations for future research are made. This study was funded by the National Institutes on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Public Attitudes Toward Applying Sex Offender Registration Laws To Juvenile Offenders, Jessica M. Salerno, Margaret C. Stevenson, Tisha R. A. Wiley, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms, Rachel A. Schmillen
Public Attitudes Toward Applying Sex Offender Registration Laws To Juvenile Offenders, Jessica M. Salerno, Margaret C. Stevenson, Tisha R. A. Wiley, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms, Rachel A. Schmillen
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
In this chapter, we provide a summary of current registration laws for juvenile sex offenders across the United States and discuss the assumptions that drive these laws. We consider whether these assumptions have been supported or refuted by the research produced on the topic thus far. Then, turning to new data from our own laboratory, we discuss public perceptions of registration laws. This is an important issue because expansion of registry laws to juveniles might be driven by strong public support—or politicians' and policy makers' perceptions that there is public support—for expansion of the registry. As we discuss, research does …
Jurors’ Perceptions Of Juvenile Defendants: The Influence Of Intellectual Disability, Abuse History, And Confession Evidence, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms, Maria C. Vargas
Jurors’ Perceptions Of Juvenile Defendants: The Influence Of Intellectual Disability, Abuse History, And Confession Evidence, Cynthia J. Najdowski, Bette L. Bottoms, Maria C. Vargas
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Understanding jurors’ perceptions of juvenile defendants has become increasingly important as more and more juvenile cases are being tried in adult criminal court rather than family or juvenile court. Intellectual disability and child maltreatment are overrepresented among juvenile delinquents, and juveniles (particularly disabled juveniles) are at heightened risk for falsely confessing to crimes. In two mock trial experiments, we examined the effects of disability, abuse history, and confession evidence on jurors’ perceptions of a juvenile defendant across several different crime scenarios. Abused juveniles were treated more leniently than nonabused juveniles only when the juvenile’s crime was motivated by self-defense against …
Correlates Of Suicidal Ideation And Attempts In Female Sexual Assault Survivors, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Correlates Of Suicidal Ideation And Attempts In Female Sexual Assault Survivors, Sarah E. Ullman, Cynthia J. Najdowski
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Relations between (a) serious suicidal ideation and attempts and (b) demographics, trauma history, assault characteristics, post-assault outcomes, and psychosocial variables were examined among female adult sexual assault survivors. Younger, minority, and bisexual survivors reported greater ideation. More traumas, drug use, and assault disclosure related to greater attempts, whereas perceived control over recovery was related to fewer attempts. Child sexual abuse and some assault characteristics predicted suicidal behavior. Depression was related to suicidal behavior until psychosocial variables were accounted for. Specifically, using substances to cope and self-blame predicted greater ideation, whereas receiving aid/information support was related to less ideation. Implications for …
Effects Of Regulatory Focus And Counterfactual Thought On Goal Pursuit In Achievement Settings : A Social Cognitive Perspective, Jessica Michelle Nicklin
Effects Of Regulatory Focus And Counterfactual Thought On Goal Pursuit In Achievement Settings : A Social Cognitive Perspective, Jessica Michelle Nicklin
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The primary goal of this study was to examine cognitive and dispositional factors that may influence self-regulated motivation from the perspective of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT: Bandura, 1986, 1989, 2002). In particular, this study examined the potential moderating effects of regulatory focus (Higgins, 1997) and counterfactual thought (Roese, 1994) on the feedback - goal revision relationship. In a sample of 297 college students, the results showed that feedback, whether based on a standard of performance or self-set goals was a strong predictor of goal level set by participants. Individuals with negative discrepancies engaged in more positive discrepancy creation than individual …