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- Autism (8)
- Autism spectrum disorder (5)
- Behavioral skills training (5)
- Resurgence (5)
- Translational (5)
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- Applied behavior analysis (4)
- Renewal (4)
- Caregiver training (3)
- Escape extinction (3)
- Functional communication training (3)
- Relapse (3)
- Translational research (3)
- Autism spectrum disorders (2)
- Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (2)
- Children (2)
- Destructive behavior (2)
- Differential reinforcement (2)
- Emergent responding (2)
- Extinction (2)
- Feeding disorder (2)
- Generalization (2)
- Inappropriate mealtime behavior (2)
- Joint control (2)
- Multiple control (2)
- Pediatric feeding disorders (2)
- Real-time feedback (2)
- Treatment integrity (2)
- ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING SKILLS (1)
- Attention (1)
- BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING (1)
Articles 1 - 30 of 37
Full-Text Articles in Applied Behavior Analysis
Teaching Peer Imitation To Preschool-Aged Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Using A Video Modeling Treatment Package, Megan M. Harper
Teaching Peer Imitation To Preschool-Aged Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Using A Video Modeling Treatment Package, Megan M. Harper
Theses & Dissertations
Peer imitation is a skill that serves to promote the acquisition of new play skills, problem-solving skills, and academic skills through observation of one’s peers. Although peer imitation is an important pre-requisite for learning from peers, many autistic children experience deficits in this area. In the present study, we evaluated a video model treatment package to teach autistic children to imitate their peers. Additionally, we conducted free play probes pre- and post-training to assess the transfer of training to a natural play setting. The results of the current study are mixed. One participant’s imitation skills generalized to the in-vivo sessions …
Teaching Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Self-Protection Skills In Response To Bullying Situations, Maya J. Fallon
Teaching Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Self-Protection Skills In Response To Bullying Situations, Maya J. Fallon
Theses & Dissertations
Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at high risk of being bullied but research on teaching children with ASD self-protection skills for bullying situations is scant. We assessed the generality of teaching procedures used in Stannis et al. (2019) to teach adults self-protection skills with autistic children. We taught five children self-protection skills for two types of bullying (threats and unkind remarks) in a one-on-one format. In addition, we taught children a self-protection skill for repeated bullying occurrences. We first evaluated behavioral skills training to teach children to report threats of physical or material harm, provide a disapproving …
Facilitating The Emergence Of Intraverbal-Tacts In Autistic Children Via Joint Control, Michael Aragon
Facilitating The Emergence Of Intraverbal-Tacts In Autistic Children Via Joint Control, Michael Aragon
Theses & Dissertations
Rodriguez et al. (2022) discovered that teaching four component skills was sufficient to facilitate the emergence of intraverbal-tacts across four applications with three participants. Our study evaluated an extension of this procedure aimed at facilitating intraverbal-tacts when a child learns the component skills but continues to fail to produce intraverbal-tacts. The extension consisted of procedures that attempted to enhance the divergent control exerted by the auditory stimulus (i.e., the question) and the discriminability of joint control. Intraverbal-tacts emerged for all three participants. These results are discussed in the context of Michael et al.’s (2011) conceptual analyses of intraverbal-tacts and the …
Using Prompt Delay And Instructive Feedback To Teach Pretend Play Skills To Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Gabriella R. Van Den Elzen
Using Prompt Delay And Instructive Feedback To Teach Pretend Play Skills To Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Gabriella R. Van Den Elzen
Theses & Dissertations
Pretend play involves carrying out routines, acting out roles, referencing absent or imaginary properties of objects, or substituting one object for another. Pretend play skills emerge in typically developing children by preschool age but are often absent or delayed in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In the present study, we evaluated use of prompt delay, instructive feedback, and prompt delay with instructive feedback for the acquisition and maintenance of pretend play skills with children with ASD. Throughout training, we conducted free-play probes to evaluate generalization to a naturalistic setting. The results of the current study suggest that combining the …
Translational Evaluation Of Treatment Integrity Following Training With Varying Destructive Behavior Rates, Alexandra Hardee
Translational Evaluation Of Treatment Integrity Following Training With Varying Destructive Behavior Rates, Alexandra Hardee
Theses & Dissertations
Behavior analysts often use behavioral skills training to teach caregivers to implement treatment for their child’s destructive behavior with high levels of integrity. Even when trained to high levels of integrity, caregivers may revert to undesirable behaviors, and treatment integrity may decrease if high rates of destructive behavior occur (i.e., relapse). In the present study, we implemented a translational evaluation with adult participants to determine the impact of training under low- or high-rate destructive behavior on treatment integrity during subsequent treatment challenges involving exposure to high rates of destructive behavior only. Participants trained to implement the treatment package under conditions …
Predicting Reinforcers To Increase Physical Activity In Young Children With Obesity Using The Six-Minute Walk Test, Jordan D. Lill
Predicting Reinforcers To Increase Physical Activity In Young Children With Obesity Using The Six-Minute Walk Test, Jordan D. Lill
Theses & Dissertations
Childhood obesity continues to be a significant public health problem in the United States in which approximately 8% to 12% of American children are obese (Cunningham, Kramer, & Narayan, 2014; Mirza et al., 2018; Ogden et al., 2014). Further, 42% of American children are engaging in less than the recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity (Troiano et al., 2008). Several treatments have been evaluated that have included goal-setting, self-monitoring, performance feedback, and access to arbitrary tangible rewards (e.g., Hyusti, Normand, & Larson, 2011; Van Camp & Hayes, 2012), but these treatments have often failed Luttikhuis et al., 2009; Nooijan …
Indices Of Happiness And Unhappiness During Treatment Of Pediatric Feeding Disorders, Laura Elizabeth Phipps
Indices Of Happiness And Unhappiness During Treatment Of Pediatric Feeding Disorders, Laura Elizabeth Phipps
Theses & Dissertations
To date, there is no research on the measurement or evaluation of indices of happiness and unhappiness for children receiving behavior-analytic treatment for feeding disorders. The purpose of the current study was to measure child indices of happiness and unhappiness before and during extinction-based treatment and to evaluate the effects of noncontingent reinforcement with extinction-based treatment on indices of happiness and unhappiness. Overall, indices of happiness were idiosyncratic, and indices of unhappiness were initially higher during extinction without noncontingent reinforcement compared to with noncontingent reinforcement. Percentage of acceptance increased for all participants during both treatments, and caregiver treatment acceptability was …
An Evaluation Of Trial-Based Functional Analyses Of Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Ashley Andersen
An Evaluation Of Trial-Based Functional Analyses Of Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Ashley Andersen
Theses & Dissertations
Functional analyses allow clinicians to develop treatment targeting the variables maintaining a child’s inappropriate mealtime behavior (Bachmeyer et al., 2019). Extended functional analyses can be inefficient, potentially delaying the onset of treatment. Researchers have suggested a trial-based functional analysis can increase assessment efficiency (Saini, Fisher, et al., 2019). This study compared trial-based functional analyses to extended functional analyses to determine the variables maintaining inappropriate mealtime behavior. We compared the efficiency and acceptability and evaluated treatments informed by the analyses. Exact correspondence between analyses was low (29%); however, most treatments indicated by the trial-based functional analyses (71%) resulted in improvements in …
Phase Duration And Resurgence, Sean Smith
Phase Duration And Resurgence, Sean Smith
Theses & Dissertations
Resurgence, the recurrence of responding due to a worsening of reinforcement conditions for current behavior, is a prevalent form of treatment relapse. Resurgence as Choice in Context predicts that increasing the duration of exposure to reinforcement for target responding during Phase 1 will increase resurgence magnitude, whereas increasing the duration of exposure to reinforcement for alternative responding and extinction for target responding during Phase 2 will decrease resurgence magnitude. We conducted an experiment evaluating these predictions with human participants recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk platform. We varied Phase 1 and Phase 2 durations across four experimental groups. Resurgence as Choice …
Evaluating The Generality And Social Acceptability Of Early Friendship Skills, Ciobha A. Mckeown
Evaluating The Generality And Social Acceptability Of Early Friendship Skills, Ciobha A. Mckeown
Theses & Dissertations
The development of prosocial skills is considered pivotal to childhood development. The friendship unit of the Preschool Life Skills program teaches early prosocial skills likely to facilitate socially desirable behaviors in young children; however, the friendship unit is the most understudied unit and has produced modest, inconsistent outcomes across children. The current study aimed to evaluate procedures necessary to (a) teach friendship skills to four children, with and without developmental disabilities, in an applied context and (b) promote the use of the skills with a same-aged peer. Teaching five friendship skills in a one-on-one approach and adding tangible reinforcement, if …
Sustaining Behavior Reduction By Transitioning The Topography Of The Functional Communication Response During Fct, Kayla R. Randall
Sustaining Behavior Reduction By Transitioning The Topography Of The Functional Communication Response During Fct, Kayla R. Randall
Theses & Dissertations
Initial rates of destructive behavior tend to be lower when behavior analysts select functional communication responses (FCRs) they can physically guide (e.g., a card-touch FCR). However, destructive behavior may recur at higher rates when FCR materials go missing than when the FCR no longer produces reinforcement. In Experiment 1, we extended prior research by demonstrating less resurgence of target responding when a vocal FCR remained available but no longer produced reinforcement compared to a condition in which neither the alternative response nor reinforcement was available. In contrast to these findings, Experiment 2 replicated other prior research showing that the ability …
An Evaluation Of A Renewal-Mitigation Procedure For Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Sarah D. Haney
An Evaluation Of A Renewal-Mitigation Procedure For Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Sarah D. Haney
Theses & Dissertations
Renewal, the increase in problem behavior during extinction following a context change (e.g., transfer of intervention from clinic to home), may be particularly concerning during interventions for feeding disorders because multiple context changes are often necessary for intervention generality and maintenance (Podlesnik et al., 2017). In the current study, we tested for renewal and evaluated a renewal-mitigation procedure when we transferred the intervention from a therapist to a caregiver, from clinic to the home, and introduced Context A foods. We used an ABA arrangement to evaluate the generality of the renewal effect with 7 children with feeding disorders. Context A …
Translational Evaluation Of The Effects Of Alternative Reinforcer Preference On Resurgence, Madeleine D. Keevy
Translational Evaluation Of The Effects Of Alternative Reinforcer Preference On Resurgence, Madeleine D. Keevy
Theses & Dissertations
We assessed the differential effects of high- and low-preference stimuli as reinforcers during functional communication training (FCT) on resurgence of destructive behavior during extinction using a multielement design with the components signaled by color-coordinated stimuli. In baseline, analog destructive responding resulted in reinforcement in both components. Next, in the treatment phase, the therapist discontinued reinforcement for the analog destructive response and delivered a high-preference reinforcer for a functional communication response (FCR) in the HIGH component and a low-preference reinforcer for the FCR in the LOW component. In the resurgence test, the therapist discontinued reinforcement for both the FCR and analog …
Boundary Conditions Of Observational Learning In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders, Andrew Blowers
Boundary Conditions Of Observational Learning In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders, Andrew Blowers
Theses & Dissertations
Whether a child with autism spectrum disorder will exhibit observational learning may depend on their attention to a part of the observed contingency and the stimulus modalities of the observed contingency. The absence of observational learning due to one or more of these variables would constitute a boundary condition. We held attention constant and used a multiple probe design combined with a repeated acquisition design to tested observational learning across a diverse set of contingencies, which composed of a hidden-edible, hidden-toy, hidden-video, tact, receptive-identification , and intraverbal contingencies. During preteaching, two children with autism spectrum disorder showed observational learning with …
Evaluating The Use Of Competing Items In A Multiple Schedule During Reinforcement Schedule Thinning, Scott A. Miller
Evaluating The Use Of Competing Items In A Multiple Schedule During Reinforcement Schedule Thinning, Scott A. Miller
Theses & Dissertations
Multiple schedules are schedules of reinforcement that are often used to facilitate more manageable rates of a replacement behavior such as a communication response following functional communication training as an intervention for destructive behavior. Commonly, reinforcement schedule thinning involves multiple fading steps that can take more than 100 sessions to achieve therapeutic goals. The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate a method for rapidly achieving fading steps in a multiple schedule by including competing items during the extinction interval. Four children diagnosed with autism successfully reached the terminal extinction interval with a ≥80% reduction in problem behavior. Two of …
Efficacy And Efficiency Evaluation Of Real-Time Feedback For Caregiver Training, Elizabeth J. Preas
Efficacy And Efficiency Evaluation Of Real-Time Feedback For Caregiver Training, Elizabeth J. Preas
Theses & Dissertations
Children with an autism spectrum disorder often have deficits in completing activities of daily living skills independently, which then falls on the responsibility of caregivers to assist their child. Behavioral skills training is an efficacious method to train caregivers to implement various behavioral interventions that includes several training components, which can be time intensive. Alternative caregiver training methods that are effective and efficient are needed to train caregivers to implement activities of daily living skills with their child. The present study used two concurrent multiple-baseline across participants design to evaluate the effects of real-time feedback and behavioral skills training to …
Resurgence Following Interdependent And Traditional Differential Reinforcement Of Alternative Behavior, Ashley Fuhrman
Resurgence Following Interdependent And Traditional Differential Reinforcement Of Alternative Behavior, Ashley Fuhrman
Theses & Dissertations
Clinicians frequently prescribe functional communication training (FCT) as a treatment for severe destructive behavior. Recent research has shown that FCT treatments are susceptible to treatment relapse in the form of resurgence of destructive behavior when individuals contact periods in which reinforcers are unavailable (e.g., Fisher, Greer, Fuhrman, Saini, & Simmons, 2018). Behavioral Momentum Theory (BMT) is a quantitative model of behavior researchers have employed to predict treatment relapse when the reinforcement component of FCT is suspended, which may occur when a caregiver is unable to implement treatment. Although many studies support the accuracy of BMT (e.g., Fisher et al., 2018), …
Development Of A Reinforcer Dimension Sensitivity Assessment To Inform Differential Reinforcement Of Alternative Behavior Without Extinction Procedures, Katherine Brown
Development Of A Reinforcer Dimension Sensitivity Assessment To Inform Differential Reinforcement Of Alternative Behavior Without Extinction Procedures, Katherine Brown
Theses & Dissertations
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is the most commonly used procedure to treat destructive behavior maintained by social-positive reinforcement (Petscher, Rey, & Bailey, 2009). Several studies have demonstrated that placing destructive behavior on extinction (EXT) during DRA is critical for the reduction of destructive behavior (Fisher et al., 1993; Hagopian, Fisher, Sullivan, Acquisto, & LeBlanc, 1998). Despite the empirical evidence demonstrating the importance of using EXT during DRA, the use of EXT has several limitations. These limitations have resulted in the development of DRA without EXT treatments, during which practitioners manipulate dimensions of reinforcement to favor appropriate responding. The …
Efficacy Of Module-Based Functional Communication Caregiver Training For Moderate To Severe Problem Behavior, Lauren A. Phillips
Efficacy Of Module-Based Functional Communication Caregiver Training For Moderate To Severe Problem Behavior, Lauren A. Phillips
Theses & Dissertations
Intensive behavior-analytic services typically reduce behavior problems associated with autism spectrum disorder. However, there are substantial barriers to access these services, including access to behavior analysts who can conduct the training. One way to address problem behavior and barriers to services is to train caregivers to implement function-based interventions to produce sustained improvements in child behavior. We developed a computer-based module (i.e., an e-learning module) to train caregivers to implement functional communication training, a function-based intervention, with extinction and safety procedures. Caregivers conducted a functional analysis to determine the function of their child’s behavior. During baseline, caregivers responded as they …
Decreasing Resistance To Change In The Form Of Food Selectivity For Children With Autism, Jaime G. Crowley
Decreasing Resistance To Change In The Form Of Food Selectivity For Children With Autism, Jaime G. Crowley
Theses & Dissertations
Repetitive and restricted response patterns are a core symptom of autism spectrum disorder, and resistance to change is a behavioral subcategory of these symptoms. Food selectivity, consumption of a limited variety of foods and liquids or rigidity during mealtime routines, is a common change-resistant behavior of children with autism that may increase the child’s risk for severe health problems such as obesity and additional learning and behavior problems (Freedman, Dietz, Srinivasan, & Berenson, 1999). Unexpected changes in routines or in the environment can cause behavioral outbursts that are disruptive or potentially dangerous to the child, caregiver, or property and increase …
Investigations Of Operant Aba Renewal During Differential Alternative Reinforcement, Ryan T. Kimball
Investigations Of Operant Aba Renewal During Differential Alternative Reinforcement, Ryan T. Kimball
Theses & Dissertations
Operant renewal is a form of relapse in which a previously extinguished response recurs due to a change in context. We designed two experiments to examine the impact of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior on ABA renewal in a translational model of relapse with 12 children either diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, an intellectual disability, or who were neurotypical. We compared levels of renewal in two, three-phase arrangements. In one arrangement, we reinforced target responding in Context A, extinguished responding in Context B, and returned to Context A while continuing to implement extinction. In a second arrangement, an alternative response …
An Evaluation Of Deferred Time-Out, Abigail Kennedy
An Evaluation Of Deferred Time-Out, Abigail Kennedy
Theses & Dissertations
Although substantial research has shown time-out to be an effective treatment for children’s problem behavior, time-out resistance (i.e., failure to go to time-out, escape from time-out, as well as negative vocalizations and aggression occurring between the time-out instruction and the completion of time-out) has the potential to decrease time-out’s suppressive effect, increase use of more intrusive and effortful administrative methods and escape contingencies, and negatively affect parental adherence. The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of deferred time-out (DTO) on time-out resistance in a clinic and home setting. In addition, this research provided a preliminary evaluation …
Teaching Caregivers To Integrate Four Play-Based Instructional Strategies Without Decrements In Child Play And Preference, Maegan Pisman
Teaching Caregivers To Integrate Four Play-Based Instructional Strategies Without Decrements In Child Play And Preference, Maegan Pisman
Theses & Dissertations
Young children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often require systematic teaching to learn new skills, and caregivers can teach their children by embedding learning opportunities in a play-based context. However, researchers have not evaluated procedures to train caregivers to implement a combination of strategies designed to establish rapport and early language skills while maintaining play as a preferred context. We recruited two caregiver-child dyads composed of two mothers and their sons (3 and 4 years old). We used a multiple-probe design across strategies to demonstrate the efficacy of behavioral skills training on the mothers’ integration of parallel play, child-directed …
Evaluation Of Real-Time Feedback Via Telehealth: Training Staff To Conduct A Preference Assessment, Janelle Ausenhus
Evaluation Of Real-Time Feedback Via Telehealth: Training Staff To Conduct A Preference Assessment, Janelle Ausenhus
Theses & Dissertations
Effective, efficient, and accessible staff training procedures are needed to meet the service delivery demand for treating individuals diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The present study evaluated the effectiveness of delivering real-time feedback via telehealth to train staff to conduct multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) preference assessments. A nonconcurrent multiple-baseline- across-participants showed that remote real-time feedback was associated with short training times and minimal sessions to achieve mastery. Generalization and maintenance probes indicated these skills were transferable to other preference assessments (i.e., edible preference assessments) and learners (i.e., children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder).
Emergent Completion Of Multistep Instructions Via Joint Control, Megan Vosters
Emergent Completion Of Multistep Instructions Via Joint Control, Megan Vosters
Theses & Dissertations
Teaching procedures that facilitate the emergence of novel responses allow for increased efficiency, which is critical when providing early-intervention services to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Three children diagnosed with ASD between 5 and 6 years old participated. In Study 1, we demonstrated functional control over the effects of teaching echoic rehearsals on the emergence of completing novel two-step instructions via joint control. In Study 2, we conducted an experimental analysis of joint control by disrupting rehearsal of the instruction and tacts of the objects in the instruction, which served as the sources of joint control. Our results support …
A Comparison Of Function- And Nonfunction-Based Extinction For Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Caitlin Kirkwood
A Comparison Of Function- And Nonfunction-Based Extinction For Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Caitlin Kirkwood
Theses & Dissertations
Previous literature supports the use of a functional analysis to prescribe treatment for children with feeding disorders (Bachmeyer et al., 2009; Piazza, Fisher, et al., 2003). Nevertheless, clinicians often train caregivers to use healthy contingencies, independent of whether those contingencies are function based. We do not know, however, whether including nonfunction-based contingencies differentially affects inappropriate mealtime behavior. In the current study, we observed that caregivers of 3 children with feeding disorders provided escape from bites and drinks and attention following inappropriate mealtime behavior. Results of a functional analysis showed escape from bites or drinks, but not attention, reinforced inappropriate mealtime …
Evaluating And Mitigating The Relapse Of Undesirable Caregiver Behavior, Daniel R. Mitteer
Evaluating And Mitigating The Relapse Of Undesirable Caregiver Behavior, Daniel R. Mitteer
Theses & Dissertations
The success of behavioral treatments like functional communication training depends on their continued implementation outside of the clinical context, where failures in caregiver treatment adherence can lead to the relapse of destructive behavior (St. Peter Pipkin, Vollmer, & Sloman, 2010). In Chapter 2, we developed a laboratory model for evaluating the relapse of undesirable caregiver behavior (e.g., delivering reinforcers following destructive behavior) in which we used an adult confederate who engaged in destructive behavior to simulate a treatment-adherence challenge. Undesirable caregiver behavior relapsed in three of four treatment-adherence challenges despite a behavior analyst using behavioral skills training (BST) to teach …
A Translational Evaluation Of Renewal Of Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Vivian Ibañez, Cathleen C. Piazza, Kathryn M. Peterson
A Translational Evaluation Of Renewal Of Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Vivian Ibañez, Cathleen C. Piazza, Kathryn M. Peterson
Theses & Dissertations
The term renewal describes the recurrence of previously extinguished behavior that occurs when the intervention context changes. Renewal has important clinical relevance as a paradigm for studying treatment relapse because context changes are necessary for generalization and maintenance of most intervention outcomes (Podlesnik, Kelley, Jimenez-Gomez, & Bouton, 2017). The effect of context changes are particularly important during intervention for children with feeding disorders because children eat in a variety of contexts, and extinction is an empirically supported and often necessary intervention. Therefore, we used an ABA arrangement to test for renewal during intervention with 3 children diagnosed with a feeding …
Bedtime Fading With Response Cost For Treatment Of Sleep Disturbances In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Sela Ann Sanberg
Bedtime Fading With Response Cost For Treatment Of Sleep Disturbances In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Sela Ann Sanberg
Theses & Dissertations
As many as 82% of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) experience numerous chronic sleep-related problems and at a much higher frequency and severity than their typically developing peers. Behavioral treatments are considered best practice and first-line treatment to address sleep problems. These treatments tend to address one specific sleep-related behavior at a time. Bedtime Fading with Response Cost (BFRC) is a promising intervention that targets a multitude of sleep problems concurrently and has yet to be replicated by more than one investigative team in the home setting with children on the autism spectrum. This study evaluated the effectiveness of …
Evaluation Of Real-Time Feedback To Train Caregivers To Conduct Early Intensive Behavioral Interventions, Amanda L. Gibson
Evaluation Of Real-Time Feedback To Train Caregivers To Conduct Early Intensive Behavioral Interventions, Amanda L. Gibson
Theses & Dissertations
Mounting empirical support for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) has increased demand for these types of treatments for children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Many caregivers are now learning EIBI techniques and becoming active agents in their child’s ASD treatment. Behavioral skills training (BST) has been frequently used to teach individuals to perform a variety of skills correctly, including discrete-trial instruction (DTI; Lafasakis & Sturmey, 2007). In this study, caregivers were trained to conduct a DTI procedure. A single-component BST method (i.e., real-time feedback) was examined. A concurrent, multiple baseline across caregivers design was used to demonstrate experimental control. …