Human Geography Commons^™

Investigating The Relationship Between Noun Classes And Plant Folk Taxonomy In Chasu Language Of Kilimanjaro Region In Tanzania, Peter Rabson Mziray

Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

The current study investigates the relationship between noun classes and plant folk taxonomy in Chasu (G 22). The study focuses on two objectives: the first objective is to describe the plant folk taxonomy in Chasu and the second objective is to determine the relationship between noun classes and plant folk taxonomy in Chasu. Data were collected from rural villages in Same and Mwanga districts by using free listing, field interviews (jungle-walk-and-identify), and written texts containing Chasu plant names. The findings reveal that Chasu folk taxonomy reflects different ethnobotanical categories; including a unique beginner which is mmea/mimea ‘plant(s)’, and three life …

Births In The Mountain West, 2023, Lara Karaalp, Yashesvi Sharma, Caitlin J. Saladino, William E. Brown Jr.

Demography

This fact sheet details data from a National Vital Statistics report on the number of births within the Mountain West in 2023. This report, offered through the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), includes data on the race/ethnic demographics of mothers of American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander, white, and Hispanic descent. This fact sheet explores birth data for the Mountain West states of Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah, by the mother’s place of residence.

Homelessness Increases In The Mountain West, 2015-2024, Krish Sharma, Sydney Mitchell, Mohit Pande, Olivia K. Cheche, Caitlin J. Saladino, William E. Brown Jr.

Demography

This fact sheet presents data on homelessness increases in the Mountain West states of Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah from 2015 to 2024. The data are derived from “Male homelessness in the United States,” a report by the American Institute for Boys and Men (AIBM). The original report includes data on the overall increase in homelessness in the United States from 2015 to 2024, as well as data on the increase in homelessness by gender.

Du Undergraduate Showcase Abstracts: Research, Scholarship, And Creative Works, Kabe Aberle, Nadia Kako, Kateri Mcrae, Brooke Agulnek, Sky Palmon, Yasmine Ramirez, Francisca Aguirre Beltran, Ashley Juarez, Bridget Kim, Tessa Appel, Sterling Kerr, Spencer Ingley, Gabe Meyer, Robin Tinghitella, Dale Broder, Lily Baeza, Chloe Beers, Julia Coakley, Whitney Kelsey, Sydney Gainforth, Gabi Wing, Audrey Martin, Aaliyah Amore Berry, Brooke Watley, Kiruthika Venkatesan, Rachel Bienstock, Annabella Brotherston, Madison Bryant, Mia Burgener, Emma P. Lieb, Rachel A. Johnson, Jennifer L. Hoffman, Kania Campbell, Kiena Campbell, Courtney Cassidy, Sage Krzyzkowski, Maddox Jones, Skylar Abookire, Luke Hawkins, Sunnah Yoon, Andrea Chu, Yan Qin, Nyah Cubbison, Brian Gearity, Daniel Mcintosh, Mariely Cruz, Edward Garrido, Grady Dionne, Nicole Doris, Lyndsie Salvagio, Ann-Charlotte Granholm-Bentley, Anna Dymov, Hannah Eckert, Gabrielle Welsh, Erica Larson, Charlie Ernst, Anna Zhou, Sarah Watamura, Larissa Fedorovich-Klein, Georgie Fields, Kimberly A. Guevara, Aven Mccall, Ben Peltier, Feruz Yahia, Patrick Flores, Jadyn Floyd, Sophia Forcier, J. Von R. Monteza, Peter Sokol-Hessner, Gwendolyn Geiger, Scott Nichols, Camryn Gunter, Kendal Hengst, Charlie Bednarz, Issy Garside, Addison Baker, Rachel Mina, Brooke Hermanson, Amanda Klingler, William Highfill, Sydney Jaques, Kerstin Lewey, Allison Grossery, Daniel Linseman, Ethan Lim, Jagger Livengood, Owen Mantelli, Gabby Pappas, Abby Mcdonald, Madeleine Dierking, Eve Miller, Emma Loeber, Anna Marlow, Michael Kerwin, Ella Mathews, Hillary Hamann, Khadija Mohamed, Vivian Nguyen, Gabri Notov, Ifunayachi Ogbonna-Ukuku, Sunil Kumar, Charles Baysah, Sarah Olson, Don Sullivan, Anna Paradiso, Jay Parrish, Mira Pronobis, Alisha Pravasi, Kerstin Haring, Diego Ramirez, Christopher Reardon, Juliana Ramirez, Casey Doherty, Ella Kestner, Teagan Weindel, Cate Billings, Pablo Torre-Walter, Lucy Rand, Samantha Reynolds, Mark Siemens, Khadeeja Rashid, Laine Satterlee, Piper Heilbronner, Lily Pound, Ben Whitehurst, Anna Respet, Lizzie Lesoing, Sydney Hertel, Aya Saad-Masri, Brooke Ballenger, Max Proske, Hannah Rosenberg, Ellia Nakahara, Sophia Espinoza, Ivan Woolhouse, Simon Ruland, Gorkem Er, Timothy Sweeny, Melaku Saketa, Michela Schenk, Maren Lynch, Madi Hamm, Grace Schroeder, Michelle Rozenman, Rana Seif, Jackson Hall, Marisela Simental, Daniel Paredes, Aaron Mena, Preston Spaan, Evelyn Stovin, David Andrew Swartz, Anh Tran, Daniel Pittman, Luke Farchione, Emily Boyer, Ukari Verner, Lacey Conrad, Jonathan Velotta, James Weiner, Jagger Gossett, Noah Sherry, Sam Proud, Ben Block, Avi Narayana, Zoey Weiss, Alyssa Wilson, Gabrielle Walsh, David Zonana, Keely Wright, Kena Riveria, Lillybelle Deer, Jena Doom, Elysia Davis, Isabelle Yaremenko, Caitlyn Young

DU Undergraduate Research Journal Archive

Abstracts from the DU Undergraduate Research Showcase.

Pluriversal Energy Justice Through An Intersectional Feminist Lens: Analyzing Rural Electrification Injustices And Policy Pathways At Kenya's Garissa Solar Park, Carolyne M. Musyoka

Dartmouth College Master’s Theses

Located approximately 4 km from Raya village in Garissa County, the Garissa Solar Park spans

85 hectares and was envisioned as a flagship renewable energy project. Yet, despite its scale and proximity, the marginalized pastoralist community of Raya continues to face acute energy poverty, limited irrigation capacity, and exclusion from the material and socio-ecological benefits of the green energy project. This study critically examines the systemic energy injustices embedded within the Garissa Solar Park—specifically procedural, distributive, and recognition-based inequalities—and critiques the project’s failure to deliver on principles of equity, local meaningful and democratic participation, and gender inclusion.

The research assesses …

Living Arrangements Of Grandparents In The Mountain West, 2021, Annie Vong, Caitlin J. Saladino, Kristian Thymianos, William E. Brown Jr.

Demography

This fact sheet examines data on living arrangements from the U.S. Census Bureau report “Grandparents and Their Coresident Grandchildren: 2021.” This fact sheet includes data on the number of grandparents living with their grandchildren, the percentage of grandparents living with grandchildren, and the percentage of grandparents that are responsible for grandchildren in the Mountain West states of Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah.

Do Myths Ever Die? Social-Cultural Changes And Mythical Transformations In Indigenous Amazonia: A Dialogue With Peter Gow, Aparecida M. N. Vilaça

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

This is the first Peter Gow Memorial Lecture, given at the University of St Andrews in February 2024. Based on the analysis of different versions of Wari’ myths (Rondônia, Brazil) collected over forty years, the paper has two central objectives. The first is to engage with Peter Gow’s analysis of the mythical transformations resulting from the historical changes experienced by the Piro/Yine Indigenous people of Peru. The second is to discuss Lévi-Strauss’s suggestion that a myth can “die” after successive transformations, exhausting itself, taking the form of romantic tale or legendary tradition.

An X-Ray Of Mẽbêngôkre Houses In Terms Of Matrimonial Alliance, Vanessa R. Lea, Leandro Mahalem De Lima

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

This article examines the matrimonial implications of the Houses, or matrihouses, of the Mẽtyktire subgroup of the Mẽbêngôkre (Kayapó-Jê) with the assistance of Puck (Program for the Use and Computation of Kinship Data) and Pajek software. In accordance with the greater legibility of graphics, statistical results have been converted into graphics whenever possible. The analysis is based on a revised version of a dataset spanning the years 1978 to 1982 and published on the site Kinsources. What began as a village census later morphed into genealogies, which served as the basis for the digital dataset. The matrihouses …

Ser Nhande’I Va’E, Da Concepção Aos Primeiros Passos: Uma Abordagem Etnográfica Sobre A Permanência, O Movimento E A Palavra, Maria Inês Ladeira

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

O evento do nascimento, assim como os ritos de passagem, são temas recorrentes na literatura etnográfica, com destaque aos resguardos, condutas e preceitos. Neste artigo, ao versar sobre o ato de nascer, refiro-me a alguns princípios referenciados na cosmologia guarani, na qual esse acontecimento é também um marcador – marco espaço/temporal – dos lugares habitados – isto é, ação de territorialização. Determinadas condutas pré e pós-parto são fundamentais para os Guarani Mbya e os Ava Guarani se socializarem com os demais viventes nas matas/terras que conformam seu território (Yvyrupa). A partir desse prisma, ressalto algumas propriedades e combinações …

Outras Antropologias E Seus Desafios Cosmopolíticos: Reflexividades Indígenas, João Paulo Barreto

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

Este texto é resultado “Dueto”/keynote com Tânia Stolze Lima do Congresso da Salsa em Letícia, intitulado: “Outras antropologias e os seus desafios cosmopolíticos”, proferida no dia 29 de novembro de 2023, onde propõe uma reflexão sobre os desafios enfrentados pelos estudantes indígenas no campo da Antropologia, especialmente no contexto universitário de pós-graduação. Como também discute os limites e tensões entre o pensamento indígena e a lógica ocidental acadêmica, marcada pela pretensão de universalidade e pela classificação redutora dos conhecimentos dos povos indígenas. Coloca-se em pauta a desconstrução dos corpos e pensamentos que os indígenas são submetidos ao adentrar na universidade, …

Framing The Future: A Community Health Analysis Of The Pee Dee Region, Stephen Borders, Jean Anton, Rian Fontaine, Donielle Phillips, Treyton Ringer, Jessica Robinson, Caitlin Thompkins

Public Health

This report presents a comprehensive, data-driven analysis of community health across South Carolina’s Pee Dee region, encompassing Florence, Darlington, Chesterfield, Marlboro, Marion, and Dillon Counties. Using tract-level data from CDC PLACES, the U.S. Census, and the National Provider Identifier registry, it assesses chronic health conditions, health behaviors, and social determinants of health. The analysis incorporates the South Carolina Healthy Communities Index (SCHCI) and a Suitability Analysis to identify the region’s most disadvantaged communities. The findings highlight persistent disparities, particularly in rural counties, where high rates of poverty, chronic disease, and unmet basic needs intersect with limited access to care. Despite …

Unmarried, Married, And Divorced People In The Mountain West, 2023, Dre Boyd-Weatherly, Caitlin J. Saladino, William E. Brown Jr.

Demography

This fact sheet presents the ratio of unmarried men to unmarried women, as well as percentage rates of single, married, and divorced people for sixteen Mountain West cities in Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, and New Mexico. The Smart Asset report, “Where Most People Are Single or Married – 2025 Study” reports data for the 119 most populous cities in the U.S. from the 2023 one-year American Community Survey conducted by U.S Census Bureau.

Heartache In The Heartland: Unraveling The Social Roots Of Deaths Of Despair In Kentucky, Lyndsey K. Blair, Madeline M. Tomlinson, Michele Abee-Biskis, Jessica Hume, Gabri Warren

Journal of Appalachian Health

Introduction: Deaths of despair (DoD), encompassing suicides, drug overdoses, and alcohol-related liver diseases, have emerged as a critical public health crisis in the United States, with their rise particularly pronounced from 1995 to 2013 and exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Kentucky, grappling with high rates of substance use disorder, poor mental health, and economic hardship, is at the forefront of this issue, particularly in its rural and Appalachian regions.

Purpose: This study explores the social determinants contributing to DoD in Kentucky, focusing on economic and social factors that influence rising rates of suicide, drug overdose, and alcohol-related liver disease. The …

Entangled Exclusions: Borders, Frontiers And Urban Geopolitics From Northeast India, Prerona Das, Gaurav Mittal, Jasnea Sarma

Research Collection College of Integrative Studies

An epicentre of ethnicity-based identity politics and exclusions, India's northeastern region has long been politically imagined as both a ‘frontier’ and ‘borderland’ for state control, territorialization, extractive economies and (re)developments by colonial and subsequent post-colonial regimes. In post-independence India, the region experienced many territorial assertions made on ethnic grounds. With the rise of religio-national and neoliberal politics, new urban ‘developments’ and connectivity projects in the region have deepened exclusions based on class, caste, ethnic and religious borders. These have, in turn, led to further displacement, enclavization, and ghettoization of minority communities who are deemed ‘non-native’ along ethnocentric lines. Taking two …

Exploring The Right To Food Advocacy Landscape In The United States, Andrew Indomenico, Peppi Delliquadri, Chelsea Marshall, Alison Cohen, Josh Lohnes

CRC Research Symposium

The National Right to Food (RtF) Community of Practice (CoP) is a membership-based national coalition of advocates and organizations working to advance the RtF in our cities, towns, and states. This research project sought to understand (1) how a membership based organization like the CoP grows into a social movement defined by the visions and needs of its participants, and (2) what the added value is of weaving together existing local and state efforts into a national movement. Through surveys (n= 54) and interviews (n=20) of CoP members, this research sought to understand individual perceptions of RtF principles, and food …

The Role Of Affordable Housing In Enhancing Tenants' Economic Stability In Connecticut: A Focus On Income, Employment, And Housing Stability, Osaid Zubi

Dissertations

This study examined the role of affordable housing in promoting economic stability among low- and moderate-income households in Connecticut. Focusing on income security, employment opportunities, and housing retention, this research highlighted the significance of affordable housing as a means to alleviate financial strain, support job retention, and foster community resilience. Utilizing a phenomenological approach, the study gathered insights from tenants, policymakers, and developers through conducting interviews and a focus group. Connecticut was chosen as the study site due to its high cost of living and affordable housing shortage, exacerbated by its proximity to New York City. Findings underscore the economic …

Inter-Prefectural Migration Of Older Adults In The Tokyo Metropolitan Area, Katsuyoshi Nakazawa, Shinji Komatsu

Japanese Society and Culture

This study uses population migration data from the 2020 National Census to examine the migration of older adults within the Tokyo metropolitan area and between the Tokyo metropolitan area and other areas. The main results are as follows: In the Tokyo metropolitan area, both older adults aged 65–74 and those aged 75 and over move out of Tokyo to the three surrounding prefectures. This tendency was more prevalent in those aged 75 and over than those aged 65–74. Regarding migration between the Tokyo metropolitan area and other areas, the results show the opposite trend, with those aged 65–74 outflowing from …

Promoting Equity: Embracing Food Justice In The Transformation Of The Food Systems For Bipoc Communities, Frank Yeboah Adusei

Journal of Extension

The food justice movement addresses systemic food inequities impacting BIPOC communities, rooted in civil rights and environmental justice movements. It advocates for fair access to culturally relevant food, combating food deserts, and promoting food sovereignty. Recognizing intersectionality, it emphasizes collaboration to dismantle systemic barriers. This study aims to understand BIPOC communities' challenges and effective strategies, stressing the importance of collaborative efforts for lasting systemic change. Extension professionals face challenges but can contribute through equity-focused strategies, community engagement, and partnerships, advancing food justice and fostering inclusive food systems.

The Paradox Of Survival: Gendered Food Insecurity, Labor Inequalities, And Coping Strategies During The 2023/4 Drought In Eastern Ethiopia, Meron E. Lemma

Theses and Dissertations--Geography

In drought-prone regions of Eastern Ethiopia, recurring droughts profoundly reshape everyday life in ways that deepen existing gendered inequalities. Drawing on fieldwork conducted in Fedis district, including semi-structured interviews with women, project implementers, and government officials, as well as group discussions with community members, this study explores how women experience, navigate, and resist the gendered impacts of drought. By attending to the sociopolitical dynamics of drought and the development interventions that accompany it, I analyze how these forces restructure labor, land, food systems, and authority in ways that reproduce and exacerbate existing inequalities. Women’s coping strategies, ranging from begging and …

Assessing High-Speed Rail (Hsr) Policy And Politics In Washington State: Avoiding The Mistakes Of The Past, Landen K. Hashimura

All Master's Theses

While international standard high-speed rail (HSR) has yet to be successfully completed in the US, there is a national interest in the topic, as evidenced by recent federal initiatives to research HSR across various corridors. The Cascadia Corridor has been identified as a region with high potential for HSR, leading to an ongoing study in the State of Washington. Given the tumultuous history of American HSR development, the Cascadia HSR initiative needs to avoid the mistakes of the past. Two major contributing factors to this failure to build HSR are uneven political support for HSR and poor policy frameworks. Despite …

“Before, We Didn’T Eat Manioc Flour”: Historical And Social Transformations In Food Techniques Among Indigenous Peoples Of The Rio Negro Basin In The Brazilian Amazon, Lorena França

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

Manioc flour is currently considered one of the main foods consumed by Indigenous peoples in the Northwest Amazon. It is fundamental both to the traditional diet and to adding an "Indigenous flavor" to urban dishes. This article presents an analysis of historical sources that position manioc flour as an important trading commodity since the 19th century and shows how its internal consumption seems to have grown in recent decades. This significance contrasts with the role of manioc flour in mythic narratives about the origin of foods, where it is either not mentioned among the Tukano peoples or referred to as …

La Escucha De Los Soplos: Chamanismo Y Proposiciones Ontológicas Sobre El Lenguaje En El Alto Río Negro, Amazonas, Danilo Paiva Ramos

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

La región del Alto Río Negro-AM es considerada una de las áreas con mayor intensidad de multilingüismo en Brasil e incluso en el mundo. Hay un total de 23 pueblos indígenas que hablan lenguas de las familias lingüísticas arawak, tukano y hup, yuhup, dâw y nadëb. El presente trabajo busca analizar, desde un enfoque comparado, cómo un sistema regional multilingüe y multiétnico se compone no sólo de exogamia lingüística, sino también de la articulación ontológica entre endoexogamia lingüística y dialogismo chamánico. Comienza con el estudio del antropólogo tukano João Rivelino Barreto sobre el arte del diálogo chamánico tukano para describir …

We Will Not Be Saved: A Memoir Of Hope And Resistance In The Amazon Rainforest, Theodor Borrmann

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

Review: We will not be saved: a memoir of hope and resistance in the Amazon rainforest, by Nemonte Nenquimo and Mitch Anderson. London: Wildfire, 2024. 368 pp., plates.

“Nós Vamos Lutar Por Eles”: A Defesa Do Povo “Isolado” Pirititi Pelos Waimiri Atroari, Amazonas E Roraima, Brasil, Silvia Melo Futada, Glenn H. Shepard Jr., Walter Nicanor Fontoura Blos, Antônio Carlos Andrade Do Nascimento, Marcelo De Sousa Cavalcante, Associação Comunitária Waimiri Atroari

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

Os Pirititi são um grupo indígena “isolado” pouco conhecido, que ocupa um território altamente ameaçado na divisa entre os estados do Amazonas e Roraima (Brasil), e tem majoritariamente rejeitado todo tipo de contato e encontro. Os Waimiri Atroari já tiveram conflitos com os Pirititi no passado, mas nas últimas décadas assumiram a responsabilidade de defender os Pirititi e seu território, em processos de reconhecimento oficial, elaborando estratégias, organizando atividades e investindo seu tempo e recursos da associação comunitária. Diante da lentidão das respostas do Estado brasileiro às invasões e outras ameaças aos Pirititi, os Waimiri Atroari tornaram-se os principais protagonistas …

Bahsé Ahpose: O Adocicamento Das Águas E Dos Peixes Como Regeneração Da Vida No Alto Vaupés, Noroeste Amazônico, José Carlos Almeida Cruz, Justino Sarmento Rezende, Thiago Mota Cardoso

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

Nas paisagens etnográficas do Noroeste Amazônico brasileiro se encontra o Rio Vaupés, na Terra Indígena do Alto Rio Negro, no Município de São Gabriel da Cachoeira. Nessas paisagens, os povos do Vaupés fazem o Bahsé Ahpose, o adocicamento das águas e dos peixes na prática do tinguijamento. O conhecimento desse ritual e sua prática resulta do encontro de conhecimentos cosmológicos e cosmopolíticos na vida dos povos do Vaupés. Esse rito se realiza pelos diálogos dos kumuã (xamãs), para quem o adocicamento faz parte da fórmula presente na taxonomia de todas as “rezas” benéficas e está sempre presente nelas. Realiza-se o …

Jean Langdon: Transformations And Perspectives From Half A Century Of Research About Shamanism, Isabel Santana De Rose

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America

This text reviews some of Jean Langdon’s most important classical and contemporary writings about shamanism, highlighting her key contributions to the area, as well as her relevance to the anthropology of health and Indigenous health policies. The paper also reflects on Langdon’s influence in the discussions surrounding gender and female agency in ethnographies of lowland South America. Jean Langdon was one of the pioneers in the revival of the research on shamanism in the 1980s. During a period when male anthropologists largely dominated studies on this topic, she highlighted the complexity and diversity of Indigenous shamanisms, proposing that they should …

State-To-State Migration In Nevada, 2017-2022, Ayda Atici, Reese Howard, Caitlin J. Saladino, William E. Brown Jr.

Demography

This fact sheet examines data on state-to-state migration patterns of people moving from other states to Nevada, as well as individuals leaving Nevada and moving to other states between 2017 and 2022. Data for all 50 states are found in the United States Census Bureau’s report, “State-to-State Migration Flows."

The Sacred Dimensions Of The Bri's Infrastructural Commons, Orlando Woods, David A. Palmer

Research Collection College of Integrative Studies

Whilst the idea of infrastructure has animated scholarship for the past twenty years at least, there remains a need for more expansive understandings of what infrastructure is, and what it can be. The speed, scale and material disruptiveness with which many of the infrastructural megaprojects that constitute China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) have been developed both underpin and validate this need. Whilst the effects of the BRI are both manifold and diffuse, all of them expose situations of infrastructural complexity. Rather than considering the BRI simply as the imposition of new material infrastructures on a landscape, we posit the …

Building Networks, Producing Spaces For Play: Local Geographies And National Organizing In The History Of Adventure Playgrounds In The United States, 1949-1999, Reilly B. Wilson

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

This dissertation provides an historical analysis of repurposed material adventure playgrounds in the United States between 1949 and 1999. Three microhistories of adventure playgrounds (The Yard, in Minneapolis, M.N., and several playgrounds in New York City, N.Y., and Houston, T.X.) are framed against the wider socio-economic changes that shaped more than thirty-five adventure playgrounds in the United States over the period of study. By focusing on the relationships mobilized by adventure playground advocates at different scales and across different points of view, and how these networks shaped the local production of spaces for play, this dissertation's method underlines the importance …

‘Brain Drain’: Net Gains And Losses Of College- Educated Residents In The Mountain West, 2023, Dre Boyd-Weatherly, Annie Vong, Caitlin J. Saladino, William E. Brown Jr.

Higher Education

This fact sheet examines the number of college-educated individuals who moved to Mountain West states (Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah) and to selected metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) in the Mountain West in 2023. The “2024 Study: ‘Brain Drain’? The States With the Largest Net Gains and Losses of College-Educated Americans” report contains data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) of the Current Population Survey conducted by the United States Census Bureau. The study includes data on where college-educated residents move and which areas experienced ‘brain drain,’ where college-educated residents move to other places.