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Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

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Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences

Exploring Effective Leadership Styles In Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment Programs: A Qualitative Study, Tony Terrel Curtis Apr 2025

Exploring Effective Leadership Styles In Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment Programs: A Qualitative Study, Tony Terrel Curtis

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to examine the perceptions of adolescent addiction treatment counselors regarding effective leadership styles in addressing organizational, employee, and clientele needs. The study focused on leadership in substance abuse treatment programs, particularly the roles that various leadership styles, such as situational, servant, and transformational leadership, play in improving communication, organizational cohesion, and client care. Participants were 15 adolescent addiction treatment program counselors who had worked for at least 1 year and were currently residing in the southwest United States. Drawing from the contingency theory of leadership, the research revealed that different leadership styles …


“Mommy And Me”: A Phenomenological Study Into The Experiences Of African American Parents In Their Child’S Teletherapy Session, Cleveland E. Robinson Apr 2025

“Mommy And Me”: A Phenomenological Study Into The Experiences Of African American Parents In Their Child’S Teletherapy Session, Cleveland E. Robinson

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this phenomenological study is to explore the lived experiences of African American parents involved in their child’s teletherapy session. The study seeks to describe how these experiences occurred in the context of transitional change as these parents and children transitioned from in person therapy to telehealth due to COVID-19 or other major life circumstance. The theory guiding this study is Schlossberg’s transitional theory which highlights how change impacts the lives of people through unique individual experiences. Data was collected from semi-structured interviews that were administered to 10 participants. From these interviews four themes were created. These themes …


Childhood Sexual Abuse And Posttraumatic Growth Among African American Women, Joyce B. Mckinley Apr 2025

Childhood Sexual Abuse And Posttraumatic Growth Among African American Women, Joyce B. Mckinley

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive phenomenological study was to explore how African American women describe their lived experience of childhood sexual abuse (CSA), the resulting changes in their relationships with others, and how survivors describe experiences of posttraumatic growth (PTG). Childhood sexual abuse is a significant public health issue in the United States, with African American youth disproportionately impacted. Research has shown that racism-related stressors are related, and African Americans often draw on cultural and familial strengths. This study aims to describe factors contributing to PTG among African American women survivors of CSA. Based on the review of the …


Examination Of Supervisor Support Of Worker Mental Health: A Quantitative Survey Of Workplace Attitudes, Interventions, Values, And Support, Myra Hernandez Apr 2025

Examination Of Supervisor Support Of Worker Mental Health: A Quantitative Survey Of Workplace Attitudes, Interventions, Values, And Support, Myra Hernandez

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The aim of this study was to help understand mental health in the workplace. The research aimed to examine how supervisor attitudes (stigma) toward mental health, staff care values, and organizational mental health intervention and prevention training predicted supervisor confidence in supporting workers experiencing mental health issues and supportive behavior of worker mental health. This quantitative, relational, cross-sectional research design used regression and moderation analyses to examine and measure the variables. Quantitative data from a closed-question survey was analyzed. The G*Power analysis determined that a minimum of 77 participants were needed for the study. Target participants were supervisors 18 years …


Experiences Of Students Who Have Attended Disciplinary Alternative Schools: A Transcendental Phenomenological Study, Bonnie Marie Cox Apr 2025

Experiences Of Students Who Have Attended Disciplinary Alternative Schools: A Transcendental Phenomenological Study, Bonnie Marie Cox

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to describe the school discipline-related experiences in the form of the exclusionary discipline for students who are currently at or who were previously at public alternative education schools in the state of Florida. At this stage in the research, school-discipline related experiences in the form of exclusionary discipline were generally defined as students’ individual experiences that may have contributed to their removal from their general education setting. This study sought to answer what the perceived experiences of current and/or former high school students who have recently attended a public alternative school as …


The Renal Social Workers' Perspective: Attitude, Behaviors, And Barriers To Sexual Health Inclusion, Sapphira L. Blount Murray Apr 2025

The Renal Social Workers' Perspective: Attitude, Behaviors, And Barriers To Sexual Health Inclusion, Sapphira L. Blount Murray

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Sexual health, an important factor of perceived wellness and quality of life, is adversely impacted by renal disease and treatment. The social worker is uniquely positioned on the renal clinical care team to address sexual health. There is a dearth of literature on renal care and sexual health, and no national study on whether or how sexual health is being addressed in renal care planning by the social worker. This qualitative case study was aimed at exploring the attitudes, behaviors, and perceived barriers based on the lived experiences of renal social workers in incorporating sexual health assessments into routine renal …


Ecclesiological Support For Veterans Suffering From Moral Injury: A Phenomenological Study, Douglas Guy Wood Apr 2025

Ecclesiological Support For Veterans Suffering From Moral Injury: A Phenomenological Study, Douglas Guy Wood

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

For many military service members, the cost of their service is through the psychological, physiological, emotional, sociological, and spiritual scars from the trauma of conflict. This trauma is most associated with the diagnoses of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Moral Injury (MI). Existing literature primarily focuses on a humanistic underlying philosophy to symptoms and patient care or uses a non-specific definition/categorization of religion/spirituality (e.g., Ames et al., 2019; Hill et al., 2000; Sharma et al., 2017). Studies have addressed psychological, physiological, emotional, and sociological healing (e.g., Åkerblom et al., 2020; Drescher et al., 2011; Gray et al., 2012; Nash & …


The Impact Of Digital Communications And Social Media On Government Officials And The Political Sphere: A Case Study Of The Arab Spring Revolutions, Wurood Shaher Apr 2025

The Impact Of Digital Communications And Social Media On Government Officials And The Political Sphere: A Case Study Of The Arab Spring Revolutions, Wurood Shaher

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

This study investigates the dual role of social media as both a tool for political mobilization and a mechanism for government surveillance during the Arab Spring. Through in-depth qualitative interviews with 22 government officials from various Middle Eastern and North African countries, the research explores how social media influenced internal decision-making processes and external governmental responses during the uprisings. Employing the theory of structuration and the sociocultural tradition as its theoretical frameworks, the study uncovers the profound impact of social media on state power and public activism. Thematic analysis reveals several key themes, including the rapid adaptation of governmental strategies, …


A Qualitative Constant Comparative Analysis Of The Editing Evolution Through Walter Murch’S Fourth Rule: Eye Trace, Emphasizing Its Utilization In Black Cinema By Renowned Black Directors From The Late 1980s To Present, Hakim Robinson Apr 2025

A Qualitative Constant Comparative Analysis Of The Editing Evolution Through Walter Murch’S Fourth Rule: Eye Trace, Emphasizing Its Utilization In Black Cinema By Renowned Black Directors From The Late 1980s To Present, Hakim Robinson

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Research using qualitative methods is growing, notably in media and communication studies. The proposed research will explore Walter Murch's fourth rule, Eye Trace, and its film editing guidelines, focusing on Black filmmakers' utilization of it and the evolution of editing overall. The study will use a Constant Comparative Analysis as the foundation of the research, with planned future use of Green and Bock's Transportation Theory to examine how media material immerses people in narratives; this research method often uses content analysis to identify and analyze text themes, patterns, and messages. The study examines whether content analysis can assess Murch's principles …


Understanding The Impact Of Romantic Relationship Satisfaction On Depression In Women Veterans, Rhonda Jean Gaston Apr 2025

Understanding The Impact Of Romantic Relationship Satisfaction On Depression In Women Veterans, Rhonda Jean Gaston

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Depression is a prevalent and impactful mental health issue worldwide, with a particularly high incidence among women. Previous research has established a positive association between romantic relationship satisfaction and depression in women. However, little attention has been given to the mental health of women veterans, a growing population within the United States military, leading to significant gaps in understanding their unique experiences. This nonexperimental retrospective study was conducted to examine how initial romantic relationship satisfaction predicted the reduction of depression symptoms following psychotherapy. Additionally, it explored how minority status among women veterans influenced post-treatment depression outcomes. Using archival data, between …


The Perceived Impact Of A Faith-Based Divorce Support Group On One’S Spiritual Strength, Mental Health And Ability To Forgive Oneself And Others, Lauren Channing Moultrie Apr 2025

The Perceived Impact Of A Faith-Based Divorce Support Group On One’S Spiritual Strength, Mental Health And Ability To Forgive Oneself And Others, Lauren Channing Moultrie

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Faith-based support groups are an important offering by churches to provide resources and support to those in their community who are experiencing difficult circumstances. And for those who are going through a divorce and may question the support that they would receive within their church, the offering of a faith-based divorce support group can be encouraging. Faith-based divorce support groups may allow individuals to gather and learn about the divorce journey as they focus on mental health, forgiveness, spiritual growth, and other unique aspects of divorce. Due to the limited existing research on faith-based divorce support groups, I sought to …


Perinatal Mental Health Literacy Of Healthcare Providers: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study Using An Ecological Systems Theory, Ashley N. Barksdale Apr 2025

Perinatal Mental Health Literacy Of Healthcare Providers: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study Using An Ecological Systems Theory, Ashley N. Barksdale

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

This phenomenological study explored the perinatal mental health literacy of healthcare providers in the United States. Guided by ecological systems theory, the study employed the Mental Health and Well-Being Ecological Model and the Perinatal Mental Health Theory of Change to examine factors influencing perinatal mental health stigma and healthcare utilization. The central research question was, “What was the experience of healthcare providers who provided medical care for mothers with perinatal mental health illnesses?” Three guiding questions were developed to investigate systemic, relational, and educational factors shaping providers' knowledge and practices. Using exploratory-descriptive qualitative methods, ten participants across the United States …


Determining The Mental Health Climate Of The Ministers Of Christian Churches In Metro Vancouver After The Reopening Of The Churches Since Covid-19 Closure, Lap Cho Chan Apr 2025

Determining The Mental Health Climate Of The Ministers Of Christian Churches In Metro Vancouver After The Reopening Of The Churches Since Covid-19 Closure, Lap Cho Chan

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The burnout of ministers is real. Ministers are human, just like everyone else in the world. Too many people (such as church officials and leaders) underestimate the adverse effects of burned-out ministers in their churches. The pandemic had a huge impact on all the churches in Metro Vancouver, Canada. Ministers experienced exceptionally high stress and anxiety after the reopening of churches after the COVID-19 closure. Thus, the purpose of this DMIN action research project is to use the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), surveys, questionnaires, and interviews to research, qualify, and quantify the mental health climate of ministers in Metro Vancouver. …


A Phenomenological Qualitative Study Of Adverse Childhood Experiences Among Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorder In Rural West Virginia, Kristen Shaylee Copenhaver Apr 2025

A Phenomenological Qualitative Study Of Adverse Childhood Experiences Among Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorder In Rural West Virginia, Kristen Shaylee Copenhaver

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe young adults’ experiences with high-functioning ASD and ACE in underserved regions of West Virginia. As ACEs are more prevalent in low-income and underserved communities, it can be essential to focus attention on the autism population and their recollection of the events that occurred, as well as the challenges they have experienced receiving treatment to adequately address their needs in West Virginia. The theory guiding this study was the theory of mind, coined by Premack and Woodruff; This theory focuses on the deficits in a person's mental state (Beaudoin et al., 2020), …


Perceptions Of Competency, Adequate Training, And Job Satisfaction Of Intensive In-Home Counselors In Hampton Roads, Virginia, Sueann Nicole Anderson Apr 2025

Perceptions Of Competency, Adequate Training, And Job Satisfaction Of Intensive In-Home Counselors In Hampton Roads, Virginia, Sueann Nicole Anderson

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

This phenomenological study aimed to explore the perceptions of intensive in-home counselors in the Hampton Roads, Virginia, area regarding their adequacy of training, competence, and job satisfaction. Participants were recruited from community-based agencies offering intensive in-home counseling services. These counselors work with at-risk children and families that face complex challenges like trauma, poverty, and behavioral instability. The theories guiding this study were Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory and Core Self Evaluations Theory, which provided a dual framework for examining intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing participants’ perceptions and experiences. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with participants, which allowed for in-depth exploration of …


Analysis Of The Relationship Of Spirituality And Spiritual Bypass On The Resilience Of Survivors Of Homicide In The U.S., Katie Ann Wiggins Apr 2025

Analysis Of The Relationship Of Spirituality And Spiritual Bypass On The Resilience Of Survivors Of Homicide In The U.S., Katie Ann Wiggins

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The quantitative study examined the influence of spirituality and spiritual bypass on the resilience of homicide survivors, an area with limited research. This correlational design used multiple regression analysis to investigate how spirituality and case solution status moderated the effects of spiritual bypass on the resilience of homicide survivors. While substantial studies address grief from natural and sudden loss, there have been few that explore the experiences of homicide survivors grieving loss due to murder. It was the researcher’s anticipation that there would be a positive effect between spirituality and resilience in addition to the negative effect on resilience from …


Exploring The Essence Of Teacher Retention In A Christian School: A Multiple Case Study, Philip Rey Regualos Apr 2025

Exploring The Essence Of Teacher Retention In A Christian School: A Multiple Case Study, Philip Rey Regualos

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this exploratory multiple case study was to understand the factors that contributed to teacher retention at two pre-K–12 Christian school associations of three schools, the Midwest Evangelical Christian School Association (MECSA) and the Rural Area Christian School Association (RACSA). In the research, teacher retention was generally defined as a teacher who is currently employed and intends to return next academic year as a teacher at this association. The theory guiding this study was Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The central research question guiding the study is: How do teachers describe the factors that motivate them to return to …


Mom, I’M Home: A Phenomenological Qualitative Study Of The Shared Experiences Of Adults Who Had A Stay-At-Home Mother, Darren Eldred Schmidt Apr 2025

Mom, I’M Home: A Phenomenological Qualitative Study Of The Shared Experiences Of Adults Who Had A Stay-At-Home Mother, Darren Eldred Schmidt

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe adults’ childhood experiences with a stay-at-home mother in the Western United States. To date, related studies on stay-at-home mothering have focused almost exclusively on the outcomes for mother and child during the time they are living together. None have examined more closely the long-term effects that stay-at-home mothering may have on children after they reach adulthood. The researcher sought to better inform couples, therapists, practitioners, and society in general regarding some of the long-term effects of having a stay-at-home mother. The family systems theory, wherein the family unit and its members …


A Phenomenological Study Of The Perspectives And Experiences Of Male Military Spouses, Shannon Rene Goodwin Apr 2025

A Phenomenological Study Of The Perspectives And Experiences Of Male Military Spouses, Shannon Rene Goodwin

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Although there has been a significant decline in the armed services’ overall enlisted forces, the number of women enlisting has tripled over the last forty-plus years, with many women joining the reserved forces. In particular, the ratio of women in the United States National Guard is higher than that of men, 52.9% compared to 47.1%. With this large increase comes an increase in military family members, particularly children and male civilian spouses, in need of assistance, especially during deployments. This phenomenological study examines the male spouses’ lived experiences within the District of Columbia National Guard military community, identifying the needs …


An Interpretative Phenomenological Study Exploring The Lived Experiences Of Mothers Of Children With Kleefstra Syndrome, Kathy Opal Farmerie Apr 2025

An Interpretative Phenomenological Study Exploring The Lived Experiences Of Mothers Of Children With Kleefstra Syndrome, Kathy Opal Farmerie

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Caregiving is a stressful obligation and has been considered hazardous to the well-being of the caregiver. Add the complexity of caring for a child with a rare genetic disease, like Kleefstra syndrome (KS), and the risk for burnout increases significantly. This purpose of this interpretative phenomenological study was to understand the experiences of mothers and surface insights into factors contributing to or mitigating stress. The theoretical frameworks that guided the study were the informal caregiving integrative model (ICIM) and the sense of coherence theory (SOC); both were relevant when attempting to determine what aspects of parenting are contributing to or …


Pathway Out Of Homelessness, Budwa (Bud) Sous Apr 2025

Pathway Out Of Homelessness, Budwa (Bud) Sous

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

This phenomenological case study aims to understand the homeless individuals' relational Transformational Experience (TE) and their choice to complete the transitional pathway journey from homelessness at a faith-based shelter. Developed in 1938 by John Dewy, TE has become a comprehensive and complex framework that describes how learners interpret, confirm, and give meaning to their experiences. As a result, this study's framework uses a hermeneutic and relational approach to explore and highlight relational barriers the homeless faced following their transition out of a Midwest homeless shelter. However, research has not adequately recognized how a restored relationship contributes to cognitive and behavioral …


The Lingering Wound: Examining The Interplay Of Cultural Mistrust, Help-Seeking Attitudes, And Race-Based Counseling Preferences Among Black Americans, Jean-Robert Langlois Apr 2025

The Lingering Wound: Examining The Interplay Of Cultural Mistrust, Help-Seeking Attitudes, And Race-Based Counseling Preferences Among Black Americans, Jean-Robert Langlois

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

This mixed-methods study examined the relationship between cultural mistrust, help-seeking attitudes, and race-based counseling preferences among Black Americans. Prior research has suggested that there is a notable underutilization of mental health services within the African American community. There is a lack of studies that integrate both quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the reasons behind this underutilization. Participants were recruited through a convenient sampling method and a total of 74 individuals aged 18 and older agreed to take part in the study. The Client Preference Scale (CPS), the Cultural Mistrust Inventory (CMI), the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychology Help Scale-Short …


The Perceived Impact Of Covid-19 On The Grief Process Of African American Adults, Tondra Crumpler Mclaurin Apr 2025

The Perceived Impact Of Covid-19 On The Grief Process Of African American Adults, Tondra Crumpler Mclaurin

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected African Americans in the areas of infections, hospitalizations, and deaths. Research studies have historically focused primarily on the grief experiences of European Americans. The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study is to understand the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the bereavement experience of African American adults. The theoretical frameworks used to guide this study were attachment theory, individual differences model, and meaning reconstruction model. Three research questions were the focus of the qualitative study: what are the lived grief experiences of African American adults who experienced the death of a loved one during the …


The Cultivation And Harvesting Of Parasocial Relationships For Evangelism: An Exploratory Multiple Case Study Of Pastors’ Use Of Video On Social Media, Larry D. Witzel Apr 2025

The Cultivation And Harvesting Of Parasocial Relationships For Evangelism: An Exploratory Multiple Case Study Of Pastors’ Use Of Video On Social Media, Larry D. Witzel

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The digital transformation of society has resulted in people living much of their lives online. Some believe the command of Jesus to “go into all the world” necessarily includes entering the digital realm for evangelistic purposes, particularly as the effectiveness of traditional evangelistic methods has declined. This research explored the communication techniques used for digital outreach by seven pastors on social media to cultivate parasocial relationships and the calls to action they used to harvest these relationships evangelistically. This qualitative multiple case study analyzed public video communication and other social media, comparing these pastors’ online ministry with the known techniques …


Correctional Officer Stress: The Effects Of Supervising Mentally Ill Inmates, Samuel T. Akers Apr 2025

Correctional Officer Stress: The Effects Of Supervising Mentally Ill Inmates, Samuel T. Akers

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The work of correctional officers goes unnoticed and unappreciated even though the job is one of the most stressful and dangerous in the United States and worldwide (Pittaro, 2017). Correctional officers work with a population that has proven their propensity to commit offenses against others, such as assaults, rapes, and murders. Officers are on constant alert for threatened or realized personal attacks. Witnessing daily violence and mayhem causes work stress and adversity experienced by no other occupation, yet correctional officers’ occupation lacks research concerning stress on officers and how that stress negatively affects inmate supervision (Lambert et al., 2018). Without …


Lgb Sexual Minorities And Parental Disclosure, Robyn D. Brian Apr 2025

Lgb Sexual Minorities And Parental Disclosure, Robyn D. Brian

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this qualitative, collective case study is to explore how sexual minorities are making parental disclosure decisions in the United States. The theories guiding this study are Minority Stress Theory with theorist Illan Meyer, as well as Family Systems Theory with Murray Bowen, as they explain the relationship between sexual minority stress experienced by sexual minorities while looking at how that impacts the entire family unit during the disclosure process. Data was collected with semi-structured interviews and analyzed using thematic analysis. Results found that one’s future plans and next steps in life were the motivating factor for sexual …


A Qualitative Transcendental Phenomenological Study Of The Nazarene Compassionate Ministries' Holistic Model Of Education, Phillip Jason Dixon Apr 2025

A Qualitative Transcendental Phenomenological Study Of The Nazarene Compassionate Ministries' Holistic Model Of Education, Phillip Jason Dixon

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this qualitative transcendental phenomenological study was to assess the effectiveness of the holistic model of Christian education in the development and preparedness of ministerial leadership roles as used by the Nazarene Compassionate Ministries’ child sponsorship program (NCMCSP) in Armenia, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and the Philippines. According to Moustakas (1994), transcendental phenomenology research seeks to understand human experiences (Moustakas, 1994). The participants in this study were delimited to graduates who experienced the NCMCSP from 2000 to 2020 and actively serving in ministerial leadership to assess their perceptions of the NCMCSP’s effectiveness in educating and preparing them for …


The Decline Of Civil Discourse On Facebook: A Qualitative Content Analysis Of The Comment Sections Of News Organizations' Facebook Pages, Cameron Lawson Apr 2025

The Decline Of Civil Discourse On Facebook: A Qualitative Content Analysis Of The Comment Sections Of News Organizations' Facebook Pages, Cameron Lawson

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

This study explores the role of Facebook’s comment sections in the decline of civil discourse, examining how the platform’s design influences user behaviors and contributes to increased incivility. Through a qualitative content analysis of 3,030 comments from 12 national and regional news organizations’ posts on both Facebook and their website, the research identifies key structural elements such as engagement-drive algorithms and broader reaction options that amplify uncivil behavior. The study also introduces three prevalent persona types in online discourse—the passionate partisan, the agitator, and the cynical joker. Each of these contributes to the dynamics of incivility in different ways. Grounded …


Women Riding To Victory: Healing From Burnout, Melissa Grace Glanowski Mar 2025

Women Riding To Victory: Healing From Burnout, Melissa Grace Glanowski

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this study was to determine if burnout could be significantly impacted in participants who attended the Women Riding to Victory: Healing from Burnout equine intervention. The project utilized a mixed-methods experimental design to determine the effectiveness. The Burnout Assessment Tool Questionnaire was used to analyze the pre and post-test scores of burnout in female attendees. A paired samples t-test was used to measure the data collected from the surveys. The results of these surveys found a mean difference of 5.916, and with the outlier removed, 4.363. The significant p-value of 0.013, and with the outlier removed, 0.01 …


The Effects Of Reading Comprehension Intervention For Dyslexia, Amber L. Coggin Mar 2025

The Effects Of Reading Comprehension Intervention For Dyslexia, Amber L. Coggin

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

A quantitative study was performed to determine if Lindamood-Bell Reading Intervention had an effect on the self-concept, anxiety levels, and depression levels of individuals diagnosed with dyslexia. This quantitative study was also conducted to determine if a person’s age had an effect on the ability to learn coping mechanisms for dyslexia. Thirty-three participants, ranging in age from 7 to17 years-old were selected to participate in the study. All participants had a formal diagnosis of dyslexia and had not obtained the Lindamood-Bell Reading Intervention prior to participating in the study. The participants were divided into three age groups. Each participant completed …