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Articles 121 - 150 of 2577
Full-Text Articles in Oil, Gas, and Energy
Engineering Stormwater Resilience In Steep Valley Ccr Landfill Construction, Kevin Resnik, Grant Phelps
Engineering Stormwater Resilience In Steep Valley Ccr Landfill Construction, Kevin Resnik, Grant Phelps
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Construction of a CCR landfill within steep geography presents unique challenges related to stormwater management, erosion control, and establishing placement and compaction practices over an extended construction timeline. This presentation builds upon prior work focused on temporary rain cover and wet-weather resiliency, expanding the discussion to practical strategies implemented during the prolonged startup and subsequent phases of waste placement. Key topics include: Stormwater management during active construction, with emphasis on intercepting, conveying, and controlling runoff in a topographically constrained setting. Breaking up drainage areas to reduce flow concentrations, prevent channelized erosion, and improve maintainability as grading evolves. Erosion control approaches …
Rapid Field Methods To Distinguish Coal Ash And Soil, Benjamin Gallagher, Klaudio Peshtani, Lee Slater, Rebecca Kreuzer
Rapid Field Methods To Distinguish Coal Ash And Soil, Benjamin Gallagher, Klaudio Peshtani, Lee Slater, Rebecca Kreuzer
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Some coal ashes exhibit soil-like textures and colors. If the coal ash and native soil at an impoundment or landfill site have similar appearances, it can be difficult to distinguish these materials in the field. Therefore, field and lab methods may be needed to supplement visual and manual observations. The results of a laboratory investigation of rapid screening methods (induced polarization, magnetic susceptibility, nuclear magnetic resonance, and colorimetry) for the discrimination of coal ashes and soils are discussed. Across five series of lab-created soil and coal ash mixtures, lab measurements of induced polarization and magnetic susceptibility values both showed strong …
Corrective Action Alternative Evaluation For Surface Impoundment Remedy – Two Case Study Examples, Qian Zhang, Andrew Bittner
Corrective Action Alternative Evaluation For Surface Impoundment Remedy – Two Case Study Examples, Qian Zhang, Andrew Bittner
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Illinois Administrative Code Part 845 requires owners and operators of coal combustion residual (CCR)-containing impoundments with groundwater protection standard (GWPS) exceedances to perform a Corrective Action Alternatives Analysis (CAAA) to evaluate viable remedies prior to selecting and implementing corrective action. The goal of a CAAA is to holistically evaluate a range of factors for the various corrective actions being considered at an impoundment. This presentation summarizes two CAAAs conducted for surface impoundments (SIs) at two power plants. Each CAAA applied a consistent decision framework that evaluates corrective action options using multiple performance criteria, such as: • Magnitude of Reduction of …
Capping And Closure Of Two Pennsylvania Ccr Landfills: Progress Update And Key Insights, Cory White, Ron Harris, John Klamut
Capping And Closure Of Two Pennsylvania Ccr Landfills: Progress Update And Key Insights, Cory White, Ron Harris, John Klamut
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
This project consists of the ongoing capping of two, 200-acre, coal combustion residual (CCR) landfills with geosynthetic capping systems consisting of 15 to 24 inches of final cover soil over eight ounce per square yard filter/separation geotextile over Super Gripnet geomembrane with drainage studs along top and friction spikes along the bottom over a prepared subgrade consisting of in-place cover soil. Approximately 80 acres were capped at each landfill from 2023 to 2025. To comply with Title 25, Pennsylvania Code §288.234(d), requiring closure within one year after cessation of waste placement, approximately 30 acres of each 200-acre site must be …
Tva Paf Gypsum Stack Final Closure – Lessons Learned And Planning For Future Use, Brooke Alison, Nicholas Golden, Gabe Lang, Shane Harris
Tva Paf Gypsum Stack Final Closure – Lessons Learned And Planning For Future Use, Brooke Alison, Nicholas Golden, Gabe Lang, Shane Harris
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
This case study involves review of the closure design and construction of a 250-acre gypsum stack at TVA's Paradise Fossil Plant using Watershed Geo's ClosureTurf final cap system. The design review will include the selection criteria of the final closure cap system, the use of a flatter-than-conventional 150-acre top deck grade, discussion of the storm water management strategy, and the planning for future use which potentially includes solar development and future harvesting of the CCP. Lessons learned will be presented including performance of the flat top deck, challenges associated with access roads over ClosureTurf, and geosynthetics documentation processes.
Unlocking Data Integrity: How Historical Data Review Enhances The Accuracy Of Laboratory Results, Danielle Coles
Unlocking Data Integrity: How Historical Data Review Enhances The Accuracy Of Laboratory Results, Danielle Coles
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Due to the implementation of the CCR rule and longstanding state regulatory guidelines, many utilities have built robust historical data sets associated with their groundwater monitoring programs. Data collected through these monitoring programs are used for many purposes including generation of statistics and site evaluation along with reporting to regulators and the public. Often, trends in data are evaluated long after data reporting to look at large scale trends or movement of constituents in the groundwater across a CCR landfill or entire site, but historical data sets can be used in real time to help determine the accuracy of current …
Coal-Derived Fly Ash – The Outlook Is Bright In The Uk, Nigel Cooke
Coal-Derived Fly Ash – The Outlook Is Bright In The Uk, Nigel Cooke
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
The global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is reshaping industrial strategies across all sectors, with construction facing particular scrutiny due to its significant embodied carbon footprint. In response, greater emphasis is being placed on proven materials that can deliver both performance and environmental benefits. Coal-derived fly ash (CDFA) has a long and successful history within the UK construction sector. It is widely recognised for the technical advantages it brings to concrete and mortar performance, as well as its established use in applications such as autoclaved aerated concrete, grouts, and secondary aggregates. As the UK commits to achieving net-zero carbon …
Anthropogenic Lithologic Characterization Through Use Of Advanced Visual Tools As A Means Of Identifying Coal Ash, Stephen Papageorge, Lucas Mangold
Anthropogenic Lithologic Characterization Through Use Of Advanced Visual Tools As A Means Of Identifying Coal Ash, Stephen Papageorge, Lucas Mangold
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Identification and differentiation of particular Anthropocene strata such as coal ash and historic fill intermixed with native unconsolidated overburden presents significant challenges. To make specific determinations about origin and composition, a variety of tools are available such as our well-defined lithologic characterization processes. However, additional tools are required, as important and defining characteristic evidence isn’t available or obvious to our senses in the field. One challenge is the absence of surficial evidence of ash areas. Secondly, we are faced with limited access, as the responsible party no longer owns the site, there is new construction in the area of historic …
Fifteen Years, 450 Acres: Inside The Tva Gallatin Ash Pond Closure, Brian Egan, Shane Harris
Fifteen Years, 450 Acres: Inside The Tva Gallatin Ash Pond Closure, Brian Egan, Shane Harris
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
This presentation is focused on the TVA Gallatin Ash Pond Complex Closure. The project team embarked on a major coal ash pond remediation effort in 2023, targeting a 450-acre site with operations expected to continue over a 15-year period. The long-term and massive scope of this dig and haul project required the design and construction of extensive supporting infrastructure, including haul roads suitable for large earthmoving equipment, major pipelines for process water rerouting, and a robust water treatment facility. Key components of the work include maintaining slope stability, conducting comprehensive air quality monitoring, and ensuring high standards for coal ash …
Ensuring Quality Geosynthetics Installations Throughout The Project Lifecycle, Glen Toepfer
Ensuring Quality Geosynthetics Installations Throughout The Project Lifecycle, Glen Toepfer
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Geosynthetics serve numerous functions in containment systems used within the Coal Ash Industry and ultimately protect the site owner from liability. A failure in the geosynthetics containment system exposes the owner to liability; therefore, it is imperative that these geosynthetic containment systems be installed correctly to mitigate the risk of failure. Avoiding failure is not just the responsibility of the geosynthetics installer – it is the responsibility of every party involved in the project lifecycle from conception through post-closure. In fact, the success of the field installation is largely determined before the first panel of geomembrane is ever installed. The …
Novel Use Of Ped-Xrf For Identification Of Ccr In Fill Units And Comingled Media, Charla Barnes, Harris Byers, Eric Hageman
Novel Use Of Ped-Xrf For Identification Of Ccr In Fill Units And Comingled Media, Charla Barnes, Harris Byers, Eric Hageman
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
The EPA CCR Legacy Rule requires utilities to identify any areas of land on which noncontainerized accumulation of CCR is received, is placed, or is otherwise managed. While performing preliminary delineation efforts for implementation of the Legacy Rule, it has become apparent that not all encountered materials are easily identified through visual means. Depending on unit location, previous uses of the land underlying the potential CCR Management Units, and the type of native soils present, there may be uncertainty if an encountered material is CCR, native soil, or another non-CCR material. In cases where the color/texture of CCR fill is …
Evaluation Of Bottom Ash For Beneficial Use, Danielle Sylvia Cofelice, Thomas Haskins
Evaluation Of Bottom Ash For Beneficial Use, Danielle Sylvia Cofelice, Thomas Haskins
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Historically, bottom ash has been beneficially used as a drainage layer within the final cover system for a coal combustion residual (CCR) landfill, positioned above the linear low-density polyethylene liner and below the protective soil cover and topsoil layers. This sustainable approach not only diverts bottom ash from waste management streams but also conserves natural resources by replacing the need for virgin materials, resulting in significant cost savings for ratepayers. To support the continued use of bottom ash in this application, an environmental assessment was completed. The assessment included sampling of bottom ash, an alternative drainage layer composed of virgin …
Germanium And Gallium: Evaluating Their Potential In Coal Ash, Ari Campanaro
Germanium And Gallium: Evaluating Their Potential In Coal Ash, Ari Campanaro
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Germanium (Ge) and gallium (Ga) have been classified as critical minerals by the Department of the Interior due to their unique properties and security risk to the supply chain. Recent restrictions on Ge and Ga imports have exacerbated the need for domestic Ge and Ga from resources such as coal ash, the largest source of industrial waste in the U.S. Understanding the abundance and modes of occurrence of Ge/Ga in a specific fly ash source is essential to evaluate its feasibility as a Ge/Ga resource. Microbeam Technologies, Inc (MTI) is evaluating fly ash resources from coal combustion and gasification systems …
Tuning Boilers To Reduce Carbon In Fly Ash - Making Salable Ash, Rod Hatt
Tuning Boilers To Reduce Carbon In Fly Ash - Making Salable Ash, Rod Hatt
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
This paper will describe various coal quality and combustion improvement facts and methods. Impact of fuel parameters like calorific value, ash, HGI, and volatile will be briefly covered. The main focus of this paper is on pulverizer performance and balancing combustion to lower carbon in fly ash. Pulverizers operating with larger than design coal particles tend to create an unbalanced pipe to pipe coal flow. This results in zones of low excess O2, even if average O2 settings are maintained. Impact on coal size and pipe balance of classifier settings and primary air flow will be covered. The importance of …
Liquefaction Susceptibility And Brittleness Of Coal Ash - A State Parameter Approach, Suafa'i Manson, Benoit Wentzinger, Scott Lines
Liquefaction Susceptibility And Brittleness Of Coal Ash - A State Parameter Approach, Suafa'i Manson, Benoit Wentzinger, Scott Lines
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Limited data exists on the liquefaction susceptibility of combined fly ash and bottom ash deposits. Their low plasticity and settling density pose a risk of liquefaction under certain triggers. The liquefaction potential is linked to the in-situ state, defining its shearing behaviour as dilative or contractive based on relative density and effective confining stress. This can be assessed using the state parameter (Ψ) concept from critical state soil mechanics theory. This paper presents findings from a follow-up to our 2021 study, which used cone penetration test (CPT) based methods to estimate the in-situ state parameter and perform liquefaction susceptibility screening. …
Evaluating And Managing Ccr Variability At An Active Beneficial Use Clean Closure Site, John Garten, Bob Baker, Lee Lenhart
Evaluating And Managing Ccr Variability At An Active Beneficial Use Clean Closure Site, John Garten, Bob Baker, Lee Lenhart
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
The basin is a 132-acre (534,200 square meter) coal combustion residual (CCR) disposal impoundment that has been undergoing closure-by-removal since 2021, with CCRs harvested for use in concrete manufacturing. Excavated CCRs are processed on-site through initial drying and screening before being routed through a thermal beneficiation process. Despite an extensive pre-closure CCR characterization program, pockets of material encountered in 2025 caused significant off-specification issues for the beneficiation feedstock that required immediate corrective action. To address this, a supplemental surveying, sampling, and on-site testing program was implemented to obtain additional grainsize and Loss on Ignition (LOI) data for active and upcoming …
Identifying And Controlling Landfill Construction Impacts To Stormwater Flow Paths, Kory Anstead
Identifying And Controlling Landfill Construction Impacts To Stormwater Flow Paths, Kory Anstead
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
This presentation will examine the engineering challenges and lessons learned associated with construction impacts and altered stormwater flow paths in the vicinity of a Sediment Pond adjacent to a newly constructed landfill. During construction activities, the sediment basin liner experienced multiple instances of flotation. Early corrective measures were implemented as quick fixes; however, these proved ineffective and ultimately necessitated more comprehensive solutions once the underlying causes were better understood. The presentation will begin with an analysis of the initial liner flotation events, focusing on the conditions that led to the problem, the immediate responses, and the eventual engineered solution. It …
Three Use Cases For Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (Insar) For Coal Ash Combustion (Ccr) Pond Closure Projects, Zach Boucias
Three Use Cases For Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (Insar) For Coal Ash Combustion (Ccr) Pond Closure Projects, Zach Boucias
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) is a satellite-based radar system that uses electromagnetic pulses and advanced post-processing software to detect ground subsidence across large areas with millimetric precision. This paper has two primary objectives: (1) to outline the advantages and limitations of InSAR and (2) to present three specific use cases for InSAR in connection with coal combustion residual (CCR) pond closures. InSAR offers key advantages over traditional monitoring methods: remote monitoring without field intervention, full-surface coverage, all-weather and day/night operation, and high precision. InSAR also has limitations in connection with rapidly changing surface conditions, and the presence of water …
Carbon-Negative Supplementary Cementitious Materials Produced From High-Calcium Coal Ashes, Hongyan Ma
Carbon-Negative Supplementary Cementitious Materials Produced From High-Calcium Coal Ashes, Hongyan Ma
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
High-calcium coal ashes, traditionally considered challenging for use in blended cements, offer unique opportunities for the development of carbon-negative supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). This study explores innovative processing and carbonation strategies to transform high-calcium ashes into reactive binders that not only reduce clinker demand but also permanently sequester CO2. Through multiple optimized and enhanced carbon mineralization pathways, the treated ashes exhibit enhanced pozzolanic performance, durability, and compatibility with Portland cement systems. Life-cycle analysis confirms that the dual benefits of CO2 capture and clinker displacement yield a net carbon-negative profile, advancing both decarbonization of cement production and sustainable coal ash management.
Harvesting Rare Earths From Coal Ash Using An Ionic Liquid, Laura Stoy
Harvesting Rare Earths From Coal Ash Using An Ionic Liquid, Laura Stoy
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
This presentation highlights a promising early-stage pathway for transforming coal fly ash from a long-term liability into a source of both critical minerals and construction materials. The speaker describes a recyclable ionic-liquid process that, at bench scale, demonstrates selective recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from a wide range of U.S. fly ashes under mild conditions while preserving the treated solids for potential use as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Attendees gain insight into why this chemistry is attracting attention: it avoids full acid digestion, shows strong preference for REEs over bulk metals, and enables repeated solvent reuse in a closed …
Subsurface Delineation Of Coal Combustion Residuals Using Multiple Geophysical Methods, Eric Hageman, Adam Rak, Thomas Jordan, Kate Mckinley
Subsurface Delineation Of Coal Combustion Residuals Using Multiple Geophysical Methods, Eric Hageman, Adam Rak, Thomas Jordan, Kate Mckinley
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Geophysical techniques provide alternative methods of Coal Combustion Residual (CCR) delineation and characterization to supplement more invasive boring programs used for beneficial reuse planning. A demonstration project was designed to characterize the electromagnetic and seismic stratigraphy of CCR material and test the effectiveness of three geophysical techniques: Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI), Transient Electromagnetic (TEM) induction, and Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Wave (MASW). The demonstration project was completed at a dry-stack CCR unit containing a variety of CCR ash, gypsum, and thin layers of drainage aggregate (limestone). During a single-day deployment, several geophysical survey tests were conducted in specific areas of …
Testing Of Accelerated Pozzolanic Activity Of Fly Ash, Anne Oberlink, Tom Robl, Bob Jewell, Haley Johnson
Testing Of Accelerated Pozzolanic Activity Of Fly Ash, Anne Oberlink, Tom Robl, Bob Jewell, Haley Johnson
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
The determination of the pozzolanic reaction in fly ash by ASTM strength activity index has been shown to be problematic, frequently producing false positives. The use of Wenner probe resistivity has been demonstrated to be rapid, simple and non-destructive method, producing no false positives. However, using this method and confirming it with other techniques finds that the reaction itself is slow with a dilatancy of 28 days or more before the measurements become discriminatory, a major drawback to this method. This study used high-temperature, high humidity curing of OPC-based mortars with various fly ash sources to determine how pozzolanic activity …
Innovative Analysis Of Groundwater Data For Scalable, Defensible, And Predictive Compliance, Shannon Zahuranec
Innovative Analysis Of Groundwater Data For Scalable, Defensible, And Predictive Compliance, Shannon Zahuranec
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Groundwater monitoring networks at coal combustion residual (CCR) facilities now yield dataset volumes that routinely exceed the capacity of traditional, univariate interpretation. This presentation introduces a scalable multivariate and machine learning (ML) framework that prioritizes understanding data structure before predictive models are applied. The workflow applies Principal Component Analysis and other multivariate statistics to groundwater datasets, to illustrate how unsupervised learning can rapidly reveal dominant sources and controls on impacted and unimpacted groundwater quality. The talk frames multivariate analysis as a practical portfolio management tool, emphasizing inference categories rather than concentrations or site identifiers. Fleet-scale multivariate screening offers strategic advantages …
Evaluating The Properties Of Ohio Ponded Fly Ash For Reliable Use In Concrete Mixtures, Ayah Suliman
Evaluating The Properties Of Ohio Ponded Fly Ash For Reliable Use In Concrete Mixtures, Ayah Suliman
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Concrete producers are under pressure to reduce the carbon footprint of concrete while maintaining a reliable supply of supplementary cementitious materials. Meanwhile, U.S. coal production in 2023 declined to less than half of its 2008 peak, significantly reducing the availability of fresh ASTM C618 compliant fly ash. At the same time Ohio contains more than 145 million cubic yards of coal combustion residuals stored in ponds, representing a large and underutilized source of potential fly ash for concrete applications. This study evaluates the suitability of harvested Ohio ponded fly ash for use in concrete through practical and specification-driven testing aligned …
Basin Ash Harvesting At The Brunner Island Station, Kyle Flynn
Basin Ash Harvesting At The Brunner Island Station, Kyle Flynn
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Tribo-electrostatic separation has been used for the commercial beneficiation of coal combustion fly ash to produce a low carbon product for use as a cement replacement in concrete for over twenty-five years. With 24 separators in 18 coal-fired power plants and cement plants across the world, ST Equipment & Technology LLC’s (STET) patented electrostatic separator has been used to produce over 25 million tons of low carbon product that has been recycled for use in concrete or cement production. STET has developed and commercialized a new process for beneficiation of reclaimed fly ash from landfills and ponds that utilizes fly …
Adaptive Design And Execution In Ccr Pond Closure: A Case Study Of Technical And Regulatory Innovation, Jay Mokotoff, Angie Casbon-Scheller
Adaptive Design And Execution In Ccr Pond Closure: A Case Study Of Technical And Regulatory Innovation, Jay Mokotoff, Angie Casbon-Scheller
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Closure by removal (CbR) of CCR impoundments presents complex challenges, particularly when unique hydrogeologic conditions exist. This presentation highlights the advance planning and ongoing closure of a Midwestern utility’s East Ash Pond (EAP), a relatively small facility with highly atypical characteristics. To comply with the CCR Rule, sluicing to the EAP ceased while the generating unit remained operational. Fly ash handling was converted to a dry system for beneficial reuse; however, wet sluicing of bottom ash continued. To avoid constructing a new regulated CCR impoundment, an innovative geotextile tube containment area (GTCA) was designed and implemented to capture bottom ash …
Evolution Of Instrumentation Use For Ccr Unit Decision Making, Nick Mcclung, Victoria Bierwirth, Matt Bishop
Evolution Of Instrumentation Use For Ccr Unit Decision Making, Nick Mcclung, Victoria Bierwirth, Matt Bishop
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Over the past decades, the power industry’s instrumentation needs and requirements have shifted to meet industry standards and regulations. In the early 2010s, piezometers and slope inclinometers were the primary types of instrumentation used to evaluate the stability of a CCR Unit. Some of the piezometers and slope inclinometers installed are still in use today to evaluate long-term stability for operations and closure. Since this time, additional instrument types were selected for installation including observation wells and temporary wells to further understand phreatic conditions within the CCR Unit. As utilities are faced with closures including removal of free liquids, data …
Benefits Of Geophysical Imaging For Coal Combustion Residuals Management Unit Delineation, Gabriel Herbert
Benefits Of Geophysical Imaging For Coal Combustion Residuals Management Unit Delineation, Gabriel Herbert
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Gabriel J. Hebert1, Gregory B. Byer1, Margaret Gentile1 1Arcadis U.S., Inc., 2839 Paces Ferry Road SE, Suite 1000, Atlanta, GA 30339 KEYWORDS: geophysical imaging, delineation, CCRMU ABSTRACT Under the 2024 Legacy CCR Rule detailed in 40 CFR Part 257, Section 75, all electric utility companies with a known legacy coal combustion residuals (CCR) surface impoundment are required to conduct a facility evaluation to identify the location, dimensions, and volumes of CCR placed and remaining on site and to assess structural stability. At a minimum, the presence or absence of CCR management units (CCRMUs) must be documented through a desktop records …
Extracting Rees From Refuse Pile Coal, Howard Mcclintic
Extracting Rees From Refuse Pile Coal, Howard Mcclintic
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
Concurrent Technologies Corporation (CTC) has a patented high temperature electric arc furnace (EAF) technology that reaches 4000-degree centigrade temperature(s). Such high temperatures are sufficient to extract each of the seventeen rare earth elements (REEs) from coal fly ash to ultimately manufacture diverse magnets. Neodymium iron boron magnets (NdFeB) are the strongest magnets produced, heretofore almost exclusively by the Chinese. For national security reasons, CTC has become part of the domestic supply chain, as an alternate to China. Scaling is the next hurdle, since our demonstration unit is operational. Nationwide, coal is decreasingly used as a fuel for generating electricity. However, …
Coal Ash-Derived Aluminosilicate Precursors: A Chemical Engineering Approach To Geopolymer Characterization, Abdullah Bashir, Abdur Raafey, Dilip Depan
Coal Ash-Derived Aluminosilicate Precursors: A Chemical Engineering Approach To Geopolymer Characterization, Abdullah Bashir, Abdur Raafey, Dilip Depan
World of Coal Ash Proceedings
The chemical and microstructural evaluation of coal-derived aluminosilicate precursors is critical for understanding their suitability in advanced construction material systems. In this study, a characterization of Class F fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and Silica Fumes (SF) was conducted to elucidate their morphological and elemental features. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used to assess particle morphology and surface characteristics (porosity, particle diameter, particle geometry), and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) to determine elemental composition and distribution. The analysis revealed distinct morphological and compositional differences among the precursors, including spherical fly ash particles, calcium-rich slag phases, and ultra-fine silica …