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Articles 1231 - 1260 of 2924

Full-Text Articles in Environmental Health and Protection

Sources Of Information On Wildlife Damage Control, Robert M. Timm Feb 1994

Sources Of Information On Wildlife Damage Control, Robert M. Timm

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

In the area of wildlife damage control, people encounter a great diversity of problems for which they need effective, timely solutions. Published materials or sources of help are often scattered, difficult to locate, or even unknown to many who work in this discipline. Let me begin with three stories. They are fictional, but they are created from the variety of wildlife-human conflicts that occur in California. Thus, they represent the reality of human attempts to deal with wildlife damage.

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Rejex-ItTm Ag-36 As Bird Aversion Agent For Turf And Agriculture, Peter F. Vogt Feb 1994

Rejex-ItTm Ag-36 As Bird Aversion Agent For Turf And Agriculture, Peter F. Vogt

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

In limited field studies on turf, winter rye, cherries and blueberries, where the presence of sufficient concentrations of ReJeX-iTTM AG-36 were known to exist, excellent bird repellency was achieved. Variations in the results are attributed to low concentrations of the initial application, rapid biodegradation due to environmental conditions, or limited application (covering less than 100% of the test plot).

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An Approach To Controlling Golden Eagle Predation On Lambs In South Dakota, Blair C. Watte, Robert L. Phillips Feb 1994

An Approach To Controlling Golden Eagle Predation On Lambs In South Dakota, Blair C. Watte, Robert L. Phillips

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

A case of severe golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) predation on domestic sheep was documented on seven South Dakota ranches during the spring of 1993. One hundred forty-two lambs and one ewe were verified as being killed by eagles during a six-week period. In an effort to resolve the depredation problem, padded leghold traps were used to capture 21 golden eagles in or near the lambing pastures. The captured eagles were translocated and released approximately 322 km northeast of the capture area. Predation on lambs ceased following the relocation effort.

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Alpha-Chloralose: Current Status, Restrictions And Future Uses For Capturing Birds, Paul P. Woronecki, Richard A. Dolbeer Feb 1994

Alpha-Chloralose: Current Status, Restrictions And Future Uses For Capturing Birds, Paul P. Woronecki, Richard A. Dolbeer

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

In 1992, the Animal Damage Control (ADC) program received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to use Alpha-Chloralose (A-C) nationwide for capturing waterfowl (Anatidae), coots (Fulica americana), and pigeons (Columba livia). To review the first year (1993) of operational use of A-C, we surveyed in January 1994 all ADC State Directors on the status of A-C use within their states. In 1993, 59 ADC personnel were trained and certified in the approved uses of A-C and 696 nuisance waterfowl were captured with A-C in 10 states. Restrictions imposed by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service …

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Acrolein As A Ground Squirrel Burrow Fumigant, Jerry P. Clark Feb 1994

Acrolein As A Ground Squirrel Burrow Fumigant, Jerry P. Clark

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Acrolein (Magnicide ®H) is registered in California as an aquatic herbicide. Studies in Alameda and Modoc Counties were conducted to evaluate the field efficacy of acrolein as a ground squirrel burrow fumigant. Applications of acrolein (92%) at 20 ml and 40 ml per burrow were made from a custom built jet gun connected to a hose which ran to a cylinder mounted on a pickup truck. The burrow openings were covered with soil after application. The application rate of 20 ml of acrolein per burrow provided approximately 90% control of ground squirrels. Acrolein applied at 40 ml did not significantly …

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Evaluation Of Field Sampling Techniques For Estimation Of Bird Damage In Pistachio Orchards, A. Charles Crabb, James J. Marois, Terrell P. Salmon Feb 1994

Evaluation Of Field Sampling Techniques For Estimation Of Bird Damage In Pistachio Orchards, A. Charles Crabb, James J. Marois, Terrell P. Salmon

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Pistachio orchards were selected and evaluated for damage caused by either scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) or American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). The distribution of damage caused by each species was evaluated and quantified. The percentage of trees damaged by scrub jays ranged from 58% to 99% and tended to be distributed randomly throughout the. orchard. In orchards with crow damage, the percentage of trees damaged ranged from 18% to 46% and damage tended to be aggregated. Data from orchards were used to evaluate the relative accuracy and precision of various sampling strategies. Randomly distributed bird damage could be sampled with relatively …

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Managing Raccoons, Skunks, And Opossums In Urban Settings, Kevin D. Clark Feb 1994

Managing Raccoons, Skunks, And Opossums In Urban Settings, Kevin D. Clark

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Increased urbanization and decreased government funding, plus increased numbers of certain wildlife species, have combined to provide a greater need for wildlife management of nuisance animals in the urban environment.

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Laboratory Studies With Compound Drc-1339 On Feral Pigeons, John L. Cummings, Patricia A. Pochop, Melvyn V. Garrison, Carol A. Furcolow, James E. Davis Jr. Feb 1994

Laboratory Studies With Compound Drc-1339 On Feral Pigeons, John L. Cummings, Patricia A. Pochop, Melvyn V. Garrison, Carol A. Furcolow, James E. Davis Jr.

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Laboratory studies were conducted to determine an effective DRC-1339 concentration and bait dilution ratio to control pigeons. Treated whole corn baits formulated with Alcolec-s®, corn starch, or corn oil as adhesive agents and 0.25% or 0.37% DRC-1339 diluted 1:5 with untreated corn produced < 10% mortality. DRC-1339 treated whole corn baits (0.25% and 0.37%) diluted 1:0 and formulated with Alcolec-s® produced 20% and 5% mortality, respectively. Whole corn treated with 0.37% DRC-1339, diluted 1:0, and formulated with corn starch produced 68% mortality in laboratory-held pigeons and was selected for further evaluations in field studies to provide efficacy data to the EPA. DRC-1339 residue levels observed in pigeons free-feeding on 0.37% undiluted DRC-1339 treated corn was not detected in breast tissue and only occurred in the gastrointestinal tract of two of five pigeons at 0.06 and 0.19 ppm. DRC-1339 residues observed in pigeons force-fed 21 whole corn kernels treated with 0.37% DRC-1339 (approximately 5 times the LDso dose) were not detectable after 3 h in breast tissue and 24 h in the gastrointestinal tract. DRC-1339 residues in pigeons gavaged with 58 mg DRC-1339 (over 10 times the LDM dose) were detectable in the breast muscle of four of nine pigeons at 0.061 to 0.10 ppm. DRC-1339 residues in the gastrointestinal tract ranged from 0.13 to >17 ppm in eight of nine treated pigeons and was not detectable in the remaining pigeon.

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Preventing Deer Damage With Barrier, Electrical, And Behavioral Fencing Systems, Paul D. Curtis, Michael J. Fargione, Milo E. Richmond Feb 1994

Preventing Deer Damage With Barrier, Electrical, And Behavioral Fencing Systems, Paul D. Curtis, Michael J. Fargione, Milo E. Richmond

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are responsible for damage to a variety of horticultural crops. Economic losses often require growers to implement one or more damage management methods including repellents, scare devices, hunting to control deer numbers, and fencing. A relatively small proportion of producers currently use fencing as their primary deer damage management technique due to high initial costs and other perceived shortcomings. Several fencing systems, including baited single wires, three-dimensional outriggers, and slanted and vertical fences up to 3.3 m (11 feet) in height have successfully excluded deer under some conditions, but simple designs are effective only under light …

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Food Habits And Management Of Introduced Red Fox In Southern California, Richard T. Golightly Jr., Michelle R. Faulhaber, Kevin L. Sallee, Jeffrey C. Lewis Feb 1994

Food Habits And Management Of Introduced Red Fox In Southern California, Richard T. Golightly Jr., Michelle R. Faulhaber, Kevin L. Sallee, Jeffrey C. Lewis

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Introduced red fox in urban Orange County, California ate a wide variety of foods. Mammals and birds were consumed at all times of the year and both taxa appeared in approximately half or more of the fecal samples at all times of the year. Human supplied food remains were also common and supplemental feeding occurred at all study sites. Supplemental feeding has the potential to exacerbate problems for management of introduced red fox and several endangered species.

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Opening Remarks - Sixteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference, Wendy S. Halverson Feb 1994

Opening Remarks - Sixteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference, Wendy S. Halverson

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Opening remarks

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The European Ferret, Mustela Putorius, (Family Mustelidae) Its Public Health, Wildlife And Agricultural Significance, Jim C. Hitchcock Feb 1994

The European Ferret, Mustela Putorius, (Family Mustelidae) Its Public Health, Wildlife And Agricultural Significance, Jim C. Hitchcock

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

The European ferret, Mustela putorius, a species prohibited in California, has become increasingly popular as a household "pet." As a result, its threat to public health, wildlife and agriculture has markedly increased. There has also been a consequent increase in reported attacks on humans, especially infants, including several fatalities. Reports of rabid European ferrets are also on the increase. When European ferrets establish "feral" populations, domestic poultry, waterfowl, game birds, rabbits and other species are at substantial risk. At this time, a California Legislature Assembly Bill has been introduced to change the status of the European ferret from a …

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Monitoring Wildlife Damage Management Pesticides, The Role Of The California Department Of Fish And Game, Robert C. Hosea Feb 1994

Monitoring Wildlife Damage Management Pesticides, The Role Of The California Department Of Fish And Game, Robert C. Hosea

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

The Pesticide Investigations Unit (PIU) of the California Department of Fish and Game is responsible for identifying and mitigating the hazards of pesticides to fish and wildlife. By conducting annual reviews of individual county vertebrate pest control plans, investigating pesticide related fish and wildlife losses and reviewing all pesticides proposed for registration in California, the PIU monitors potential effects of vertebrate toxicants on fish and wildlife. The California Department of Fish and Game is working in conjunction with other state and local agencies, manufacturers and applicators to develop balanced, safe pest control programs which provide maximum protection to California's fish …

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Biological Management (Control) Of Vertebrate Pests-Advances In The Last Quarter Century, Scott E. Hygnstrom, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Thomas R. Schmaderer Feb 1994

Biological Management (Control) Of Vertebrate Pests-Advances In The Last Quarter Century, Scott E. Hygnstrom, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Thomas R. Schmaderer

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

In 1967, Howard provided a review of biological control of vertebrate pests. The term "biological control" was borrowed from the field of entomology, where it has been traditionally defined as "the reduction in number or density of pests through biological processes such as predation, pathogens, habitat modification, and fertility control." Current philosophy in wildlife damage management advocates "the reduction of damage to a tolerable level" rather than "the reduction of the number or density of vertebrate pests." Therefore we abdicate the term "biological control" and encourage the use of a new term, "biological management" of wildlife damage. Advances in science …

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Efficacy Of Five Burrow Fumigants For Managing Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs, Scott E. Hygnstrom Feb 1994

Efficacy Of Five Burrow Fumigants For Managing Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Current limitations on pesticides for managing prairie dog populations underscore the need for additional research on candidate compounds. I conducted this study to determine the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of two registered burrow fumigants (aluminum phosphide and gas cartridges) and three unregistered burrow fumigants (methyl bromide, chloropicrin, and a methyl bromide/chloropicrin mixture) for managing black-tailed prairie dogs. All five fumigants reduced burrow activity 94% to 97%, as measured by a plugged burrow technique. Total costs for materials and labor for the registered products, excluding application equipment, were nearly twice ($30.00 to $38.50) the cost of the unregistered fumigants ($15.25 to $16.25).

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Present Status Of Rattus Norvegicus On Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos, Ecuador, Gillian Key, Elizabeth Wilson, Jules Conner Feb 1994

Present Status Of Rattus Norvegicus On Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos, Ecuador, Gillian Key, Elizabeth Wilson, Jules Conner

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Introduced commensal rodents have had a major impact on the biota of island communities worldwide; the ship rat (Rattus rattus) and the house mouse (Mus domesticus) have a long history in the Galapagos islands, while the larger, more aggressive brown rat (Rattus norvegicus was identified only in 1983 on one island, Santa Cruz. By 1988 it had spread into the agricultural zone but was still restricted to human habitation. In 1993 the cross-island road and village communities in the agricultural zone of Santa Cruz were sampled using a standard trap line of break-back traps. House surveys were also carried out, …

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Effects Of Cs2-Starch Xanthate On Consumption By Rats, Ann E. Koehler, Mark E. Tobin, Robert T. Sugffiara Feb 1994

Effects Of Cs2-Starch Xanthate On Consumption By Rats, Ann E. Koehler, Mark E. Tobin, Robert T. Sugffiara

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

We conducted a series of preliminary feeding trials with Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), roof rats (/?. rattus), and Polynesian rats (R. exulans) to examine the effects of carbon disulfide (CS2) on consumption of nontoxic foods. We formulated CS2 at target concentrations of 10 ppm in deionized water, and of 50 ppm to 100,000 ppm in a starch xanthate matrix. However, we did not analyze actual concentrations of CS2 in the test foods or measure its rate of volatilization, and thus cannot verify the levels of CSj the rats were exposed to. CS2 diluted …

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California Ground Squirrels At Concord Naval Weapons Station: Alternatives For Control And The Ecological Consequences, Ivette Loredo-Prendeville, Dirk Van Vuren, Amy J. Kuenzi, Michael L. Morrison Feb 1994

California Ground Squirrels At Concord Naval Weapons Station: Alternatives For Control And The Ecological Consequences, Ivette Loredo-Prendeville, Dirk Van Vuren, Amy J. Kuenzi, Michael L. Morrison

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

This paper presents a methodological approach that was recently developed to determine alternatives for control of California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) and the resulting ecological consequences at the Concord Naval Weapons Station (CNWS). The U.S. Navy initiated this study upon determining a need to control ground squirrels for safety reasons. The squirrel's ecological role at CNWS was examined by estimating squirrel abundance and distribution throughout CNWS, analyzing predator diets, and determining the squirrel's relationship to the California tiger salamander (Ambystoma californiense). In addition, the efficacy of live capture and translocation of squirrels as a possible control …

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Trends In Mountain Lion Depredation And Public Safety Threats In California, Terry M. Mansfield, Steven G. Torres Feb 1994

Trends In Mountain Lion Depredation And Public Safety Threats In California, Terry M. Mansfield, Steven G. Torres

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

The mountain lion (Felis concolor) is widely distributed in California over at least 80,000 square miles of a variety of habitats. Trends in lion damage to property and threats to public safety have increased in recent years. The Department of Fish and Game has documented confirmed damage to property caused by lions since 1972. In 1972, there were four depredation permits issued and one mountain lion taken, while in 1993 there were 192 permits issued and 74 lions taken. Four verified incidents of mountain lions injuring humans have occurred in California since 1985. All four incidents involved children and …

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Grower Practices For Blackbird Control In Wild Rice In California, Daniel B. Marcum, W. Paul Gorenzel Feb 1994

Grower Practices For Blackbird Control In Wild Rice In California, Daniel B. Marcum, W. Paul Gorenzel

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

We surveyed 29 wild rice growers, representing 96% of the California acreage grown in 1993, to determine current practices for blackbird damage control. Twenty-seven growers (93%) had blackbird damage. The period of greatest damage and most intensive control was July through September. Red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) most frequently caused damage, but three other species of blackbirds and the European starling (Sturnis vulgaris) were also identified. Most growers (72%) reported 1 to 10% yield loss. Average loss ranged from $121 to $309/ha, and from $14,530 to $32,061/grower. Most growers (97%) attempted to control blackbirds for an average of 3.5 months …

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Current (1994) Ground Squirrel Control Practices In California, Rex E. Marsh Feb 1994

Current (1994) Ground Squirrel Control Practices In California, Rex E. Marsh

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Current control practices are discussed for the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi) which is considered a major rodent pest to agriculture. The primary control options are poison baits, burrow fumigation and trapping. The effectiveness of baits and fumigants is linked closely with the squirrel's annual life cycle, hence knowledge of their cycle is essential. The elements of the squirrel's life cycle importance to management are given in detail. Habitat modification and other methods useful in select instances are provided, along with control strategies within the context of integrated pest management.

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Developing An Electrified Fence To Exclude Rabbits From Crops, Gordon Mckillop, Dylan Poole Feb 1994

Developing An Electrified Fence To Exclude Rabbits From Crops, Gordon Mckillop, Dylan Poole

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

The effectiveness of a new design of electric strained wire fence (CSL fence) for managing rabbits is currently being assessed in a two year trial. It is being compared with a commercially available electric netting fence (Flexinet fence) and also with farmers' normal control methods. The study is taking place on commercial farms in Cornwall, England, where the fences are being erected to protect fields of cauliflower. The amount of rabbit damage to individual plants in each field is being assessed and the numbers of rabbits feeding in these fields are being counted. Plant yields at harvest will also be …

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Improving Aerial Control Of Possums By Precision Bait Delivery, David R. Morgan Feb 1994

Improving Aerial Control Of Possums By Precision Bait Delivery, David R. Morgan

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Aerial delivery of 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) baits is the main technique for reducing populations of New Zealand's foremost vertebrate pest, the Australian brushtail possum, in large areas of inaccesible country. Surveys after pilot-controlled aerial sowing of baits in seven operations in forests showed that inaccurate navigation along the swaths left up to half the target zone untreated. Kill was estimated to average 75 %. Inadequate coverage with baits was therefore believed to be a major factor in the survival of possums during aerial control operations. This was confirmed in field trials using rhodamine B as a biomarker to reveal acceptance …

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Wolf Depredation Management In Relation To Wolf Recovery, Carter C. Niemeyer, E.E. Bangs, S.H. Fritts, J.A. Fontaine, M.D. Jimenez, W.G. Brewster Feb 1994

Wolf Depredation Management In Relation To Wolf Recovery, Carter C. Niemeyer, E.E. Bangs, S.H. Fritts, J.A. Fontaine, M.D. Jimenez, W.G. Brewster

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

By 1930, wolves were extirpated from the western United States for livestock protection. In 1973, the Endangered Species Act protected wolves, and by 1980, wolf recolonization began in Montana. Confirmed livestock losses have been 17 cattle and 12 sheep with 16 wolves controlled as part of a program to enhance the recovery of non-offending wolves. ADC has: 1) controlled problem wolves, 2) improved communication with affected publics and governmental agencies, and 3) enhanced wolf recovery in Montana.

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An Overview Of Avian Predation And Management Techniques At Fish-Rearing Facilities, James A. Parkhurst Feb 1994

An Overview Of Avian Predation And Management Techniques At Fish-Rearing Facilities, James A. Parkhurst

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

As the aquaculture industry continues to expand in the United States, so too do the losses attributed to wildlife depredation. Because the industry is so diverse and the various types of culture are characterized by unique designs, operations, and arrays of cultured species, there is a need for corresponding uniqueness in predator management strategies and techniques. It is unlikely that, at any time in the near future, one universal method or approach will be developed to successfully resolve wildlife depredation problems in all facilities. However, numerous areas for improvement currently exist where potential reductions in the extent of loss can …

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Racumin Plus , A New Promising Rodenticide Against Rats And Mice, Reiner Pospischil, Hans-Jurgen Schnorbach Feb 1994

Racumin Plus , A New Promising Rodenticide Against Rats And Mice, Reiner Pospischil, Hans-Jurgen Schnorbach

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Coumatetralyl (Racumin ) has been known since 1957 as a multiple dose anticoagulant and has been used successfully over many decades. In the seventies and especially the eighties, rats developed an increased resistance to anticoagulants in certain regions of Central Europe. Also, the addition of vitamin K to animal feed (especially to chicken feed) has reduced the efficacy against rats and mice in farm buildings. Combinations of anticoagulants with different types of vitamin D are generally described to increase the efficacy of action against rodents. It was found that especially the combination of coumatetralyl with cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) could overcome …

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Effective Period For Control Of The Brown Spiny Field Mouse (Mus Plantythrix) In Dry Land Crops, G. Govinda Raj Feb 1994

Effective Period For Control Of The Brown Spiny Field Mouse (Mus Plantythrix) In Dry Land Crops, G. Govinda Raj

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Information on breeding aspects of rodents is important to ensure control program timing necessary for effective pest management. Hence, studies on breeding aspects of the brown spiny field mouse (Mus platythrix), a known rodent pest in dry land crops were investigated including environmental factors influencing reproduction, from regular monthly collections made during the years 1990 and 1991. Field trapped rodents were classified to derive their population structure—percent juvenile, pre-pubertal and adult including prevalence of pregnancy—based on body weights and sexual conditions. The stage of pregnancy and sperm motility were confirmed by autopsy studies. The data were also analyzed …

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Hanta Viruses And Their Rodent Reservoirs In The United States, James E. Childs, Thomas G. Ksiazek, Pierre E. Rollesf, John W. Krebs, Sherif Zaki, Stuart T. Nichol, C.J. Peters, Gregory E. Glass Feb 1994

Hanta Viruses And Their Rodent Reservoirs In The United States, James E. Childs, Thomas G. Ksiazek, Pierre E. Rollesf, John W. Krebs, Sherif Zaki, Stuart T. Nichol, C.J. Peters, Gregory E. Glass

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Since 1993, three novel hantaviruses have been identified from the United States of which at least two can cause a severe respiratory disease termed hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). Rodent reservoirs have been identified for two viruses; Peromyscus maniculatus is the primary host of Muerto Canyon Virus (MCV) in the western United States and genetic analyses have implicated Sigmodon hispidus as the probable host of a hantavirus in Florida. Of 813 P. maniculatus tested in the southwestern United States 30.4% were infected; 12 of 90 (13.3 %) S. hispidus from Florida were infected. The S. hispidus-associated virus has not been isolated …

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Conference Participants Feb 1994

Conference Participants

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

The number of registered attendees was 318. The participants came from 30 states, the District of Columbia, and from 14 other countries. The wide representation from the United States and countries throughout the world contributed to the success of the Conference by providing a highly knowledgeable and diversified group for the exchange of research progress, new ideas, and information on a wide range of vertebrate pest topics.

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How Birds Interpret Distress Calls: Implications For Applied Uses Of Distress Call Playbacks, Michael R. Conover Feb 1994

How Birds Interpret Distress Calls: Implications For Applied Uses Of Distress Call Playbacks, Michael R. Conover

Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings: 16th (1994)

Distress call playbacks are used as deterrents to keep birds out of areas where they are causing problems. However, the calls often are ineffective, owing to birds' rapid habitation to them. Recent studies on the functional significance of distress calls indicate that adult passerines only distress call when physically constrained and that the calls are designed to startle the predator holding the caller into releasing it. Further, distress calls attract other birds, which approach the caller to acquire information about the predator. These findings suggest that distress calls would be more effective if their broadcast is paired with a predator …

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