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2002

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Articles 61 - 90 of 664

Full-Text Articles in Environmental Sciences

Translocating Common Nighthawks At Mcconnell Air Force Base, Kansas To Reduce Aircraft Strikes, John L. Cummings, Patricia A. Pochop, James E. Davis, Darryl L. York Oct 2002

Translocating Common Nighthawks At Mcconnell Air Force Base, Kansas To Reduce Aircraft Strikes, John L. Cummings, Patricia A. Pochop, James E. Davis, Darryl L. York

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

McConnell Air Force Base (MAFB) experiences a unique bird/aircraft hazard problem with migrating common nighthawks (Chordeiles minor) from August-October. Nighthawks are the most commonly struck species at MAFB, representing about 38% of total reported bird/aircraft strikes and 82% of the strikes from August-October. Factors that contribute to an over abundance of nighthawks on MAFB are: abundant foraging opportunities in close proximity to the airfield, available roosting habitat for nighthawks on and around the airfield, the lack of a Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard program to address nighthawks, and the location of MAFB on a nighthawk migration route. Approaches for …

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Efficacy Of Translocation Of Red-Tailed Hawks From Airports, Laurence M. Schafer, John L. Cummings, John A. Yunger, Kirk E. Gustad Oct 2002

Efficacy Of Translocation Of Red-Tailed Hawks From Airports, Laurence M. Schafer, John L. Cummings, John A. Yunger, Kirk E. Gustad

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Raptor translocation from airport environments is a management strategy that has been recommended and used in attempts to reduce aircraft strikes. However, supportive data are lacking about optimal translocation distance and direction, return rate, post-translocation fate and overall efficacy of the technique. We conducted a study from 1 December 1999 to 28 February 2002, which included satellite telemetry, to address these issues of raptor translocation at a Midwest Airport. Two hundred and fourteen red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) were translocated to 12 sites in Illinois, between 59 and 242 km from the airport. Thirty-four after-hatch-year (AHY) individuals were fitted …

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A Small Pond Off-Airfield Provides More Than Water, Nigel Horton Oct 2002

A Small Pond Off-Airfield Provides More Than Water, Nigel Horton

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Land use changes around aerodromes are becoming more problematical as conservation groups increasingly press for eco-friendly restorations, especially of water areas. Often the requirement is to encourage insects or plants or recreational use of such areas. However, these same beneficial features for biodiversity, can enhance the already considerable off-airfield bird attraction. A single case study illustrates the slow, generally unnoticed, development of a small water feature as an attraction to increasing numbers of birds and species over a period of about 10 years. This and a second study reveal how a "must feed the birds" mentality influences local bird populations. …

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Environmental Analysis Of Wildlife Hazard Management Programs: Application Of Nepa And Possible Consequences For Implementing New Plans (Poster), Ken Wallace Oct 2002

Environmental Analysis Of Wildlife Hazard Management Programs: Application Of Nepa And Possible Consequences For Implementing New Plans (Poster), Ken Wallace

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

The operating certificate required for airports that accommodate commercial-service air carriers stipulates that the airports be able to conduct safe operations, pursuant to the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. Under Federal Aviation Regulation Part 139, most airports must prepare and implement a wildlife hazard management plan (WHMP) as part of the certification process. Required components of the WHMP include the priorities for needed habitat modification and changes in land use as a result of those modifications. Because habitat modification is often a relatively permanent procedure to reduce wildlife use of airports, it is a preferred method by airport operators for …

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Animal Ambush At The Airport: The Extent And Nature Of Non-Bird Wildlife Strikes With Civil Aircraft, Usa, 1990-2001 (Poster), Sandra E. Wright, Richard A. Dolbeer Oct 2002

Animal Ambush At The Airport: The Extent And Nature Of Non-Bird Wildlife Strikes With Civil Aircraft, Usa, 1990-2001 (Poster), Sandra E. Wright, Richard A. Dolbeer

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Birds have long been recognized as a serious threat to aviation safety. However, other wildlife (mammals and reptiles) can also have a serious impact on aircraft. From 1990-2001, 1,029 strikes to civil aircraft involving wildlife other than birds were reported to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Deer (522) and coyotes (115) were the most commonly struck wildlife. Other non-bird species struck included rabbits, woodchucks, turtles, alligators, and iguanas. Whereas 14% of bird strikes resulted in aircraft damage and 9% had a negative effect on the flight, 47% of strikes with other wildlife caused damage and 33% had a negative effect …

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Identification Of Batstrikes (Poster), Suzanne C. Peurach Oct 2002

Identification Of Batstrikes (Poster), Suzanne C. Peurach

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Identification of fragmentary evidence such as hairs, bones, and claws that have been recovered from United States Air Force (USAF) aircraft has been undertaken by the Biological Survey Unit (USGS) for the last 5 years. The results of these investigations may be useful in preventing future damaging batstrikes. Examination of batstrikes may also provide valuable information to the scientific research community about patterns in bat migration, flight altitudes, and times of flight. Positive identifications are made by comparing unknown samples with the collection of museum specimens housed in the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History. Macroscopic characters such as …

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Successful Use Of Alarm/Alert Call Playback To End Canada Goose Problems At An Ohio Business Park (Poster), Philip C. Whitford Oct 2002

Successful Use Of Alarm/Alert Call Playback To End Canada Goose Problems At An Ohio Business Park (Poster), Philip C. Whitford

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Burgeoning continental resident Canada goose populations have led to increases in aircraft strikes. Once on or near airfields, geese have proven difficult to move and keep away. Playback of naturally recorded alarm and alert calls of the species was coupled with multiple harassment techniques to determine if this strategy would prove effective at removal of long-term resident geese from a 24-ha business park in Dayton, Ohio. The study began 26 February 2002, following territorial establishment by the geese, and continued until the last few geese had abandoned the property as of 14 May 2002. Most geese present were reusing nest …

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Development Of Birdstrike Risk Assessment Procedures, Their Use On Airports, And The Potential Benefits To The Aviation Industry, J. R. Allan, A. Orosz, A. Badham, J. Bell Oct 2002

Development Of Birdstrike Risk Assessment Procedures, Their Use On Airports, And The Potential Benefits To The Aviation Industry, J. R. Allan, A. Orosz, A. Badham, J. Bell

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Over the past 2 years, CSL has been involved in the development of formal risk assessment procedures for the birdstrike hazard to aircraft. These risk assessments have now been carried out at all BAA airports in the UK, and the impact of this process on the bird management at the different airports can begin to be assessed. The risk assessment process itself has also been refined over the same period, and calculations made to determine how the various target levels for birdstrike frequency, particularly those which, if not met, require further bird management to be undertaken, relate to absolute levels …

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Improving The United States Bird Avoidance Model (Usbam) Predictive Risk Surface, Mark Alexander, Matt Bobo, Russell P. Defusco Oct 2002

Improving The United States Bird Avoidance Model (Usbam) Predictive Risk Surface, Mark Alexander, Matt Bobo, Russell P. Defusco

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

The United States Bird Avoidance Model (USBAM) uses Geographic Information System (GIS) technology to analyze and correlate bird habitat, migration, and breeding characteristics, combined with key environmental and man-made geospatial features. The Application consists of raster grids covering the conterminous USA. The value for each grid pixel location is equivalent to the sum of the mean bird mass (in ounces), for all species present during a particular daily time period, for one of 26 2-week periods in a year. The original USBAM is a desktop application that has an intuitive design and includes separate interfaces for multiple user profiles such …

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Implementation Of Gis Technology To Detect Wildlife Hazards At Airports, Michelle L. Gray Oct 2002

Implementation Of Gis Technology To Detect Wildlife Hazards At Airports, Michelle L. Gray

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for displaying spatial data is a well established technique widely used by many professions, especially natural resources. Environmental and engineering departments at many civil and military airports also use GIS to aid in planning new construction and future development. These same techniques can be applied at airports to create maps that visually portray the occurrence and location of wildlife hazardous to aircraft. At Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in North Carolina, USDA Wildlife Services uses this technology to analyze and display wildlife activity on grid maps. Wildlife observations are maintained in a database …

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Reported Bird Strikes At Down-State Illinois Airports, Michael W. Rapps Oct 2002

Reported Bird Strikes At Down-State Illinois Airports, Michael W. Rapps

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Land-use restrictions in the vicinity of airports are increasingly employed as a means to reduce bird strikes on aircraft. Yet, in the absence of controlled studies, the link between land usage and bird strikes is largely anecdotal. In seeking a connection between bird strikes and land use, the records of reported bird strikes from the years 1990-2001 were examined for 28 airports in down-state Illinois. For each airport it was noted whether land use within 6 miles of the airports included large bodies of water or wetlands, wildlife sanctuaries, golf courses, landfills, shopping venues with food concessions, or croplands. Because …

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Bird Detection And Radar Wind Profilers, Scott Mclaughlin Oct 2002

Bird Detection And Radar Wind Profilers, Scott Mclaughlin

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Radar wind profilers (RWPs) are a very sensitive class of operational and research-grade meteorological radars designed specifically to detect clear air turbulence in the atmosphere. These systems have been designed with frequencies ranging from 50 MHz to 3 GHz and antenna sizes from about 1 m to >1 ha. Unlike NEXRAD systems, the antennas do not move or scan but rather are stationary and use phase-shifter arrangements to point the beam. Using the Doppler-shifted backscatter return, winds profiles can be measured from near the ground to as high as 20 km in 5- to 60-minute intervals. RWPs have been used …

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Development Of A Portable Bird Detection Radar For Airports, Michael Hovan, William J. Hughes Oct 2002

Development Of A Portable Bird Detection Radar For Airports, Michael Hovan, William J. Hughes

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

The development of a prototype portable bird detection radar for airports and airfields will be presented. This prototype radar is currently being developed under a partnership between the U.S. Air Force and the FAA, and is being funded under the U.S. Air Force Dual Use Science and Technology (DUST) program. Overview of the program will be given, and detailed specifications of the radar unit, and planned tests at a commercial airport will be presented. Future Plans for an integration of this type of radar into a real-time airport bird strike advisory system will be presented as well.

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Need For Certification Program For Persons Conducting Wildlife Hazard Management Activities At Airports, John Ostrom Oct 2002

Need For Certification Program For Persons Conducting Wildlife Hazard Management Activities At Airports, John Ostrom

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

With the complexity of tools, information and resources available to airports today, there comes a need for standardization for those persons involved in Airport Wildlife Hazard Management. One approach to standardization would be the creation of a multi-level certification program to provide the basic necessary information, training and resources to anyone involved in Airport Wildlife Hazard Management. In order to create and manage this program, the basic structure of Bird Strike Committee USA (BSC USA) would need to evolve into a more formal organization. This reorganization would create the foundation for BSC USA to provide the necessary management structure and …

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Increasing Air Safety At Eglin Air Force Base Through Vulture Roost Dispersal, John S. Humphrey Oct 2002

Increasing Air Safety At Eglin Air Force Base Through Vulture Roost Dispersal, John S. Humphrey

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Forested wetlands provide attractive roost sites for black vultures (Coragyps atratus) and turkey vultures (Cathartes aura). Vultures entering and departing roosts, however, can create hazardous conditions for pilots arriving and departing nearby airports because vultures often use the same air column as aircraft. This was the case for Eglin Air Force Base and co-located Okaloosa Regional Airport in Niceville, Florida where 260 vultures roosted in nearby Turkey Creek Nature Trail. We evaluated the effectiveness of suspending a taxidermic vulture effigy in the roost, augmented by periodic use of a handheld laser management options to alleviate these …

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A New Technology To Repel Birds: The High-Intensity Acoustic Bird Dispersion System (Hiabds), Xi Baoshu, Zhou Mingjun, Wang Jingqun, Richard A. Dolbeer, Thomas W. Seamans Oct 2002

A New Technology To Repel Birds: The High-Intensity Acoustic Bird Dispersion System (Hiabds), Xi Baoshu, Zhou Mingjun, Wang Jingqun, Richard A. Dolbeer, Thomas W. Seamans

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

A High-intensity Acoustic Bird Dispersion System (HIABDS), invented by Professor Xi Baoshu, is a new nonlethal device for dispersing birds from airports and other locations. The device employs a unique electro-pneumatic loudspeaker which can amplify recorded wildlife vocalizations or artificial sounds of varying frequencies to high power levels and project them over long distances. The sound pressure reaches 135 dB at 10-m distance. In China, HIABDS is being used at Lanzhou Airport to disperse upland buzzards (Buteo hemilasius), whose numbers declined by 80% after 1 year of deployment. During 2001-2002, HIABDS was used at Tianjin Binhai International Airport …

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Emergency Wildlife Management Response To Protect Evidence Associated With The Terrorist Attack On The World Trade Center, New York City, Richard B. Chipman, Kenneth J. Preusser, Justin T. Gansowski, Carl P. Cranker Iii, Daniel P. Sullivan, Richard A. Dolbeer, Thomas W. Seamans, Laura C. Francoeur Oct 2002

Emergency Wildlife Management Response To Protect Evidence Associated With The Terrorist Attack On The World Trade Center, New York City, Richard B. Chipman, Kenneth J. Preusser, Justin T. Gansowski, Carl P. Cranker Iii, Daniel P. Sullivan, Richard A. Dolbeer, Thomas W. Seamans, Laura C. Francoeur

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Human-wildlife conflicts arise under a variety of circumstances and working environments. No one could have predicted the unique working environment created by events surrounding 11 September 2001. At the request of the New York City Police Department (NYPD), the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, a team of USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services (WS) biologists mobilized in less than 24 hours to assist officials from the NYPD, PANYNJ and the Federal Bureau of Investigation in managing birds and rodents impacting the recovery of evidence as a result of the …

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Wildlife Hazard Management In Micronesia: Aviation Safety In Uncharted Territory, Daniel S. Vice Oct 2002

Wildlife Hazard Management In Micronesia: Aviation Safety In Uncharted Territory, Daniel S. Vice

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

The islands of Micronesia support small, but growing, commercial and military aviation routes. A developing tourism industry, coupled with increased demands for military training sites, is bringing aviation traffic to remote and occasionally primitive island settings. While flight volumes are low relative to mainland settings, the nature of aviation in the islands is that of self- sufficiency and minimal infrastructure, which creates difficult flight situations. Pilots flying island routes face numerous challenges, including wildlife hazards that are generally unmitigated. Although major infrastructure and safety improvements have been made across many of the civilian airports in Micronesia, the impact of wildlife …

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Bird Strikes In Courts: The Genoa Case, Valter Battistoni Oct 2002

Bird Strikes In Courts: The Genoa Case, Valter Battistoni

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

There have not been many court cases, be it criminal or civil, concerning accidents, or even compensation for damages, following bird strikes. Generally, those involved prefer to reach an agreement out of court. The first court sentence in Italy on this subject was pronounced by the Civil Court of Genoa in 2001. The carrier had sued a number of entities (Ministry of Transport, Airport Operator, Air Traffic Control Agency) for damages resulting from a multiple impact between a BAE 146 and a flock of gulls (Larus sp.) that occurred on 7 June 1989 at Genoa Airport. On that occasion …

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Canada Goose Population Management At The Minneapolis-St. Paul International And Downtown St. Paul Airports, James A. Cooper Oct 2002

Canada Goose Population Management At The Minneapolis-St. Paul International And Downtown St. Paul Airports, James A. Cooper

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

A Canada goose (Branta canadensis) control program was initiated at the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport (MSP) in 1984, and at the Downtown St. Paul Airport (STP) in 1994. Flightless geese >16 km from these airports were trapped (MSP 1,734; STP 1,397), neck-banded (MSP 1,047; STP 502), and observed and counted weekly in fall at 22 and 6 locations >5 km from MSP and STP, respectively. Efficacy was also measured by observing fall goose flights through the operations airspace in 1984-1987 and 1998-2001 (MSP), and 1994-2001 (STP). Based on neckband origin of birds observed >2 km from the airfields, …

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Monte-Carlo Simulation Of Birdstrike To Support Rule Making For Large Birds, Julian M. Reed Oct 2002

Monte-Carlo Simulation Of Birdstrike To Support Rule Making For Large Birds, Julian M. Reed

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

A clear need was established by the aero-engine manufacturers and the certifying authorities for a re-assessment of the published rules governing engine certification for large flocking birds. A task group was set up to address this need at the beginning of 2000. Early in this program, it was determined that a statistical approach to the rule making was required and the Monte-Carlo technique was proposed and accepted. This paper discusses the implementation of the Monte-Carlo technique to simulate bird strike events from the Rolls-Royce viewpoint and describes the various refinements that have been made in order to ensure an adequate …

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Aircraft Engines And Large Flocking Birds, Richard Parker Oct 2002

Aircraft Engines And Large Flocking Birds, Richard Parker

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

This paper will present a summary of the results of the ARAC (engine) Bird Ingestion Phase II rule making effort. The effort was to evaluate the hazard to transport category aircraft, of large flocking birds, and to revise the engine certification requirements as appropriate. The paper will discuss the revision to engine certification requirements. It will also discuss the recommendation of the task group regarding the importance of continuing effort for bird control at the airport.

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A Paradigm Shift In Bird Strike Prevention By The Israeli Air Force, Nicholas B. Carter, Eyal Cohen Oct 2002

A Paradigm Shift In Bird Strike Prevention By The Israeli Air Force, Nicholas B. Carter, Eyal Cohen

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Over the past 20 years, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) has focused attention in bird strike prevention on collisions between aircraft and migrating birds during low-level flight operations. Only in the last 2 years has the IAF begun to tackle the problem of reducing bird-aircraft collisions at or near airfields. A dramatic shift in thinking has led the IAF to initiate complete wildlife control programs at its airbases, featuring the employment of border collies and wildlife control officers to help eliminate the risk of wildlife collisions within the control zone (CTR) of each airfield. As a crucial component of this …

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Evaluation Of Electrobraid Fencing As A Deer Barrier, Thomas W. Seamans, Zachary J. Patton, Kurt .. Vercauteren Oct 2002

Evaluation Of Electrobraid Fencing As A Deer Barrier, Thomas W. Seamans, Zachary J. Patton, Kurt .. Vercauteren

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Increasing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in North America have lead to direct threats to public safety as well as agricultural losses. Fencing is often used to keep deer from causing damage at both airports and agricultural areas. Tall, chain-link fences have been used successfully but are often prohibitively expensive. Electric fences have potential to offer a less expensive alternative. We tested a new electric fence design marketed under the name ElectroBraid. This fence, comprised of 0.6-cm polyester rope with copper wire woven into it, is carried on frangible, fiberglass posts set at 15-m intervals. From January to …

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Birdstrike Identification (Poster), Carla Dove Oct 2002

Birdstrike Identification (Poster), Carla Dove

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Identification of feather evidence retrieved from birdstrikes provides essential information that allows airfield managers, engineers, pilots and government agencies to work together to prevent damaging birdstrikes. Knowing the identity of the birds that are causing problems is the first step in formulating a plan to discourage birds from interfering with aviation safety. The feather identification process is complex and involves cleaning feather material, microscopic examination, and whole feather comparisons with specimens in a museum collection. This poster presents the feather identification technique and provides information to various agencies on how and where to send birdstrike remains for identification.

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Status Of North American Canada Goose Populations (Poster), John L. Seubert Oct 2002

Status Of North American Canada Goose Populations (Poster), John L. Seubert

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

North American Canada goose (Branta canadensis) populations continue to increase, causing potentially greater hazard to aviation. There is greater interest by biologist and aviation interests in monitoring the status of these populations because of the increasing number of Canada goose strikes to aircraft. Waterfowl in North America are managed in four administrative flyways – the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central, and Pacific. Goose numbers in these flyways are based on mid-winter or breeding period counts. The Canada goose count for North America in 2000 was 5,728,000—61% were the large resident geese. The resident component of the population has increased more …

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Proceedings Of 4th Bird Strike Committee Usa/Canada Annual Meeting 21-24 October 2002 Sacramento, California Usa Oct 2002

Proceedings Of 4th Bird Strike Committee Usa/Canada Annual Meeting 21-24 October 2002 Sacramento, California Usa

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Abstracts

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Managing Nature In Today's World, Walter E. Howard Oct 2002

Managing Nature In Today's World, Walter E. Howard

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

The objective of my talk is to help airport authorities better understand the turmoil they encounter when managing birds and other wildlife populations. Many are reluctant to manage birds and mammals because they know that it will inevitably stir up controversy. Especially this is true when the program includes lethal means. Many people think all problems can be resolved by using non-lethal frightening devices or by live-trapping offending animals and relocating them away from airports. There are some sound arguments as to why it is biologically, ecologically and ethically proper to even use lethal means to resolve some airport wildlife …

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Even With Good Equipment, Experienced Manpower Is Necessary, Nigel Horton Oct 2002

Even With Good Equipment, Experienced Manpower Is Necessary, Nigel Horton

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Maximized efficiency and quality assurance of equipment is essential to both the manufacturer and the end-user. Quite uniquely, one UK manufacturer of bird control equipment sought the views of the aerodrome bird control staff who used it. A simple tick-box questionnaire, designed by an independent biologist, was sent to each aerodrome and 37 returned completed forms, representing about half of known users in the UK. A simple subjective analysis of these produced some unexpected results that are presented here. The survey was not dissimilar to the original trials of bird distress calls on RAF airfields undertaken during the 1960's, thus …

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Avian Hazard Control In Brazil: Essential Role Of The Aeronautical Accidents Prevention And Investigation Center - Cenipa, Luiz Claudio Magalhaes Bastos Oct 2002

Avian Hazard Control In Brazil: Essential Role Of The Aeronautical Accidents Prevention And Investigation Center - Cenipa, Luiz Claudio Magalhaes Bastos

Bird Strike Committee-USA/Canada Joint Annual Meeting: 4th (2002)

Brazil built one of the world’s largest aeronautical infrastructures. The airport net is distributed along its vast territory, which shows a tremendous ecosystem variety. Having a large civilian aircraft fleet and also running second after Venezuela in catalogued bird species, Brazil has had problems related to bird strikes. Nevertheless, Brazil is made up of 26 States plus the Federal District. Thus, besides the Union Government, each state holds its own government structure. The states are divided into counties that also have their own administrative structure. The jurisdiction of each level of government is established by the Federal Constitution, laws and …

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