Public Health Education and Promotion Commons^™

Chronic Constipation Among Community-Dwelling Older People In The East Coast Region Of Peninsular Malaysia, Patimah Abdul Wahab, Azidah Abdul Kadir, Yeong Yeh Lee, Siti Hawa Ali, Dariah Mohd Yusoff

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, symptoms, and factors associated with chronic constipation among community-dwelling older people in the East Coast region of Peninsular Malaysia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in four selected health clinics using stratified cluster sampling. A face-to-face interview was carried out among the elderly outpatients, in order to complete a structured questionnaire. Results: A total of 400 participants were included in the study. The mean age was 68.7 ± 6.4 years, and 55% of the cohort were women. The prevalence of chronic constipation was 32.3% among the sample population. The …

Factors Influencing Consumers’ Choices Of Oral Hygiene Products: A Cross-Sectional Study, Faiza Awais, Hazik Bin Shahzad, Kiran Naheed, Ayyaz Ali Khan

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Environment, peer-groups, and salespersons influence consumers’ purchasing decisions regarding oral hygiene products. Other influences include various cultural, social, demographic, and socioeconomic factors. This study was designed to determine factors motivating and influencing consumers while choosing oral hygiene aids. Methods: 410 patients (age, 10–70 years), who visited the outpatient department of Sheikh Zayed Medical Complex, Lahore, Pakistan, were subjected to a close-ended questionnaire survey. Factors investigated included cost, packaging, media advertisement, perceptions, and previous experiences. Results: The cost of oral-hygiene products (82%) were the biggest influence. Advertisements influenced 55% of consumers in their purchase decisions regarding oral …

Correlation Between Carotid Intima-Media Thickness And Serum Tnf-Alpha Levels In Female With Rheumatoid Arthritis Of Different Ethnicities: A Single-Centre Experience In Malaysia, Kek Xin Yi, Asrul A. Wahab, Mohamad Norazrin Mohd Abas, Siti Amira Kamarul Abdul Wahid, Faridah Hanun Othman, Mohd. Shahrir Mohamed Said

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a destructive chronic inflammatory disease with intra- and extra-articular manifestations. It is associated with accelerated formation of arteriosclerosis. The aim of this study was to ascertain the correlation between endothelial dysfunction using carotid intima–media thickness (cIMT) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels among the three main ethnic groups in Malaysia: Malay, Chinese, and Indian. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 23 females with RA belonging to three different ethnic groups who were free from cardiovascular risk factors. Blood sample was taken from each patient to measure serum TNF-α level, C-reactive protein (CRP), and erythrocyte …

Dimensions Of Stress In Parents Of Children With Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Amirah Hazwani Binti Bakri, Noor Aishah Binti Rosli, Zarinah Binti Mohd Kasirun, Mohd Hairul Nizam Bin Md Nasir, Fazidah Binti Othman, Tengku Sarina Aini Binti Tengku Kasim

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Parents of children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are at an increased risk for stress and other mental health problems. While treatment is mainly focused on the child, somehow parents’ stress is exacerbated. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to identify the sources of stress in the parents of children with ASD. Methods: The 52 parents of children with ASD who participated in the study completed the child domain (CD) and parent domain (PD) subscales of the Parenting Stress Index Fourth Edition (PSI-4). Subsequently, the scores of the PSI-4 subscales were analyzed and compared. Results: …

Factors Influencing Pre-Marital Sexual Intercourse Among Unmarried Young Individuals In Cambodia, Vanthy Mai, Sirinan Kittisuksathit

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Sexual behavior of young individual are recognized as one of the main health priority in society. In Cambodia, young individual who hasten to involve in sexual intercourse, contributes to their high risk of various health issues, particularly those related to sexual reproductive health. This research will identify specific characteristics that have strong relationships with pre-marital sexual intercourse among unmarried young individuals in Cambodia. Methods: A binary logistic regression in a multivariate analysis of secondary data was applied from the 2014 cambodian demographic and health survey. the data about pre-marital sexual intercourse were assessed with the CDHS questionnaire …

Does Healthy Lifestyle Contribute To Physical And Mental Health Among University Students?, Dian Caesaria Widyasari, Sherly Saragih Turnip

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Little is known of how a healthy lifestyle and its health outcomes are related in university students in Indonesia. This study examined the association between healthy lifestyle markers (diet, sleeping hours, physical exercise, smoking, alcohol intake) and health outcomes (perceived physical fitness, psychological distress) among undergraduate students at university in Indonesia. We also examined gender-related patterns. Methods: A total of 616 undergraduate students participated in two cross-sectional studies carried out between 2011 and 2013. Six close-ended questions were used to measure health behaviors and perceived physical fitness. The Hopkin Symptoms Checklist-25 was used to measure psychological distress. …

An Experimental Model Of Chemically-Induced Ulceration Of The Buccal Mucosa Of Mus Musculus, Erik Idrus, Pratiwi Dwi Hartanti, Dewi Fatma Suniarti, Sri Redjeki Prasetyo, Yuniardini Septorini Wimardhani, Ajiravudh Subarnbhesaj

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Ulceration caused by chemical agents used in dental practice for in-office or home-used is a common event, resulting in discomfort and pain. Treatments for such conditions are still being developed, requiring extensive experiments both in vitro and in vivo studies. At present, a standardized experimental mouse model for mucosal ulceration caused by a chemical inducer to study the pathogenesis of ulceration and to develop medications for treatment of ulceration is still not available. The aim of this study was to create a chemically induced model of ulceration of the buccal mucosa of mice. Methods: An in vivo …

The Roles Of Intra-Household Gendered Dominance In Unmet Need For Family Planning Across Myanmar, Win Ei Phyu, Chalermpol Chamchan

Makara Journal of Health Research

Background: Unmet need for family planning in Myanmar (estimated 15.8% by the UN in 2017) is relatively high compared to other South East Asia countries. Moreover, Social Institutions and Gender Index in Myanmar is very high and cultural norms promote childbearing. Thus, this paper was conducted to examine role of intra-household gendered dominance (IHGD) in unmet need for family planning across Myanmar to set more effective intervention for family planning. Methods: The study utilized secondary data from 2015–2016 MDHS. Total 7,652 married women in reproductive age (MWRA) were included and 16% of them had unmet need for family …

Effect Of Self-Regulated Learning For Improving Dietary Management And Quality Of Life In Patients With Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus At Dr. Ramelan Naval Hospital, Surabaya, Indonesia, Yayuk Estuningsih, Thinni Nurul Rochmah, Merryana Andriani, Trias Mahmudiono

Kesmas

Self-regulated learning is a process of learning how to manage and regulate oneself to obtain skills and knowledge without depending on others. It is expected that diabetes patients can manage their diabetes by themselves. This study aimed to analyze the effect of self-regulated learning-based educational intervention on quality of life for patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus (DM) at Dr. Ramelan Naval Hospital, Surabaya. This was a quasi-experimental study in the form of pretest and posttest with a control group design. A total of 20 patients with DM were randomly divided into intervention and control groups to undergo a 4-week intervention. …

Maternal Knowledge, Attitude, And Practices About Traditional Food Feeding With Stunting And Wasting Of Toddlers In Farmer Families, Betty Yosephin Simanjuntak, Miratul Haya, Desri Suryani, Ali Khomsan, Che An Ahmad

Kesmas

Traditional foods are foods consumed by a certain ethnic group in a specific region. The habit of consuming traditional foods is usually inherited by the family members, including toddlers, of a respective generation. The study aimed to determine relationship of maternal knowledge, attitude, and practices in traditional food feeding with stunting and wasting of toddlers in the farmer families of the Central Bengkulu District. This study employed a cross-sectional design with a sample of mothers with children aged 12–59 months. The sample included a total of 115 farmer families. Data on nutritional knowledge, attitude, practices about traditional food, sex of …

Overweight And Obesity Status With Dental Caries Among Children Aged 7–12 Years Old In Badung District, Bali 2018, Hariani Rafitha, Putri Bungsu Machmud, Ratna Djuwita, Dwi Gayatri, Fakhrana Ariani Ayub

Kesmas

Dental caries is an infectious disease that Dental is characterized by the dental damage resulting from microorganism products in carbohydrate fermentation. Dental caries and obesity in children are multifactorial diseases associated with eating habits and certain lifestyle factors. This study aimed to assess the association between overweightness, obesity, and dental caries among children aged 7–12 years in Badung district, Bali province in 2018. The total sample of 426 children and their mothers were recruited from all first to fifth elementary grade students in three schools selected by simple random sampling. The logistic regression analysis has demonstrated a significant association between …

Personal Exposure Of Traffic Policeman To Particulate Matter In Jakarta: Distribution Of Size, Chemical Composition, And Work Time, Doni Hikmat Ramdhan, Eka Fitriani Ahmad, Fitri Kurniasari, Zuly Prima Rizky, Hardy Atmajaya, Muhayatun Santoso

Kesmas

Particulate matter (PM) is an air pollutant that has an impact on public health, especially in an urban area. The objective of this study was to analyze the personal concentration of PM2.5 and its composition among police working in the roadside area in Jakarta. PM measurement has done to the policeman that controlled traffic on four near highway locations in Jakarta. Sioutas impactor, Leland Legacy personal pump, and quartz fiber filter were chosen to measure the fine particles. Each PM was measured for 8-hour period. PM concentration was analyzed by the gravimetric method while tracing element and black carbon in …

Users’ Perception Of The Hospital Information System In A Maternity Hospital In Lampung, Indonesia, Al Asyary, Arief Kurniawan Nur Prasetyo, Tris Eryando, Solvay Gerke

Kesmas

Hospital information systems (HIS) have been applied on a massive scale; however, user evaluation of their effectiveness, efficiency, and service quality improvements remain rare. This study aimed to describe the utility of information systems from the users’ point of view by using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in a maternity hospital in Lampung, Indonesia. The study provided an overview of the features of the information system and the workflow of the user through this information system. Screenshots were taken by using Camtasia Studio 2.0 Trial Version application software for one day (two shifts) in the outpatient service. The HIS generally …

Knowledge, Attitude, Practices, And Health Beliefs Of Pregnant Women About Urinary Tract Infection And Its Associated Risk Factors: A Local Filipino Community Experience, Annalyn Navarro, Raphael Enrique Tiongco, Reynaldo Bundalian Jr.

Kesmas

Urinary tract infection (UTI) during pregnancy is assumed to be associated with increased maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality; hence, a proper assessment of knowledge and practices is crucial to formulate preventive strategies to ensure the health of both the mother and the baby. The study determined the knowledge, attitude, practices (KAP), and the beliefs of pregnant women about UTI based on the Health Belief Model. A survey questionnaire was used to gather data from pregnant women with and without UTI. The association of the pregnant women’s sociodemographic characteristics with their KAP and health beliefs was determined using Pearson’s chi-square …

Midwife’S Role In The Mother-To-Child Transmission Prevention Program In Primary Health Care In Yogyakarta, Niken Meilani, Nanik Setiyawati, Sammy Onyapidi Barasa

Kesmas

Curing and eradicating Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) are to the core principles of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The incidence of HIV in the world remains high. Although midwives play a pivotal role in PMTCT implementation, the factors associated with midwives’ role in its implementation are not well understood. The aim of this study was to determine factors associated with midwives’ role in implementation of PMTCT. This study used a cross-sectional design. The subjects were 80 midwives at 14 primary health care in Yogyakarta City, Indonesia. The study was conducted from April to August 2017. …

Sexual Dysfunction Among Women With Diabetes In A Primary Health Care At Semarang, Central Java Province, Indonesia, Lintang Dian Saraswati, Ari Udiyono, Dian Sutrisni, Muh Fauzi

Kesmas

Sexual dysfunction is associated with pain during sexual intercourse. Diabetes mellitus (DM) has been reported to be one of the causal factors for sexual dysfunction in women. This cross-sectional study was conducted to describe the status of sexual dysfunction in women with DM in the Tlogosari Kulon Primary Health Care, Semarang, Indonesia, in March 2017. A total of 103 women with DM attending the health center participated in this study. Data were collected using a questionnaire-guided interview and through measurements (blood pressure and random blood glucose test). Results showed that 74.8% of women with DM had sexual dysfunction. The proportion …

Using Community Pharmacy Immunization Screening Forms To Identify Potential Immunization Opportunities, Albert T. Bach, Jeffery A. Goad

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Immunization screening forms are completed for each patient that is to be vaccinated in the pharmacy. Screening forms contain demographic and health questions, which are used to determine if a patient is contraindicated to receive a vaccine. The objective is to determine if patient responses to questions on these forms can be used to identify potential vaccine indications. De-identified data was retrospectively collected from 11 community pharmacies in California and Michigan that included basic demographics, answers to immunization screening questions, and vaccine(s) administered during that visit. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommendations were used to forecast vaccine needs …

Regional Variation In Chronic Kidney Disease And Associated Factors In Hypertensive Individuals In Rural South Asia: Findings From Control Of Blood Pressure And Risk Attenuation-Bangladesh, Pakistan And Sri Lanka, Liang Feng, Hithanadura Asita De Silva, Imtiaz Jehan, Anuradhani Kasturiratne, Gulshan Himani, Mohammad Abul Hasnat, Tazeen Jafar, Cobra-Bps Study Group

Community Health Sciences

Background: We aimed to determine the prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and its cross-country variation among hypertensive individuals in rural Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. We also explored the factors associated with CKD in these populations.
Method: We studied baseline data from the Control of Blood Pressure and Risk Attenuation-Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (COBRA-BPS) trial, an ongoing cluster randomized controlled trial on 2643 hypertensive adults ≥40 years of age from 30 randomly selected rural clusters, 10 in each of the three countries. CKD was defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) /min/1.73 m2 or a urine albumin:creatinine …

Hematological Indices Of Pesticide Exposure Rice Farmers In Southern Thailand, Wiyada Kwanhian, Supabhorn Yimthiang, Siriuma Jawjit, Junjira Mahaboon, Udomratana Vattanasit, Phiman Thirarattanasunthon

Kesmas

The most common pesticides used in rice farming are organophosphates and carbamates. These pesticides inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, resulting in excessive levels of acetylcholine accumulation and disrupted neurotransmission. This study compared AChE activity and hematological parameters between pesticide-using rice farmers, non-pesticide using rice farmers, and non-agricultural occupational groups (non-farmers). Pesticide residues that accumulated in rice and the water and soil of the study area were also determined. AChE activity of all participants showed 10 from 87 samples (11.49%) as borderline depressed, with 50% of these being pesticide-using farmers. Most of the hematological parameters were normal in all samples. However, platelet …

Behavior Problem Impact To Decreasing Kidney Function Among Migrant Workers, Laily Isroin, Made Suandika

Kesmas

Indonesian Workers were undergoing 18% of hemodyalysis from the number of hemodyalysis patients. They did not know about CRF. The study aimed to analyze the behavior of migrant workers who were suffering hemodyalysis. The study used a qualitative design with a phenomenological approach, that is carried out on former migrant workers who suffer from chronic kidney failure. Indepth interview used as data collection. While data validation used triangulation and confirmability. Data analysis techniques was done by reducing and interpreting the data. The study show migrant workers behavior before becoming migrant workers were very pathetic. They often drunk kind of energy …

Effects Of Son Preference On Contraceptive Use In Bangladesh, Mohammad Nazmul Hoq

Kesmas

Son preference resulting from traditional beliefs, social customs and economic benefits including support of aging parents is widespread not only in Bangladesh but also in many Asian and African countries, which are believed for low levels of contraceptive use. To carry out the research task effectively and efficiently, the research work extracted 16,858 currently married women aged 15-49 out of 17,863 ever-married women from a nationally representative 2014 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey Data (BDHS, 2014) set. Levels of contraceptive prevalence rate of the respondents having only daughters is found only 48.4, which is remarkably lower than the national average …

Analysis Of Traditional Health Care In Three Community Health Centers In West Java Province, Indonesia, 2018, Adik Wibowo, Evita Diniawati, Than Tun Sein

Kesmas

The National Traditional Health Care set up three objectives for its implementation at the health centers, whereby health staff to be trained on traditional health and provide accupressure care, able to collect data, register and provide technical guidance to traditional healers and guide individuals in the use of traditional medicine and herbs. This qualitative research aimed to analyze the implementation of traditional health care at 3 subdistrict health centers Ciomas, Ciawi and Caringin in district Bogor. Data was collected through document analysis, observation and indepth inteview. Each health center has trained staff in accupressure but care is hindered by lack …

The Risk Of Hypertension In Adulthood As A Consequence Of Adolescent Obesity, Demsa Simbolon, Epti Yorita, Ruzita Abd Talib

Kesmas

Population increase in adolescence are associated with increased overweight and obesity problems. If this problem not early intervention will have an impact on increasing hypertension prevalence and risk of death. This research aimed to explain the consequences of overweight and obesity in adolescent to hypertension in adults. The study used Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) data with a retrospective cohort study. Adolescent BMI measurements on 2007 and the risk of hypertension on 2014. Population are all adolescents aged 10-20 years in 2007. Sample of 1,697 adolescent who randomly IFLS 2007 with the inclusion criteria: biological children and a single birth, …

Duration Of Hormonal Contraception And Risk Of Cervical Cancer, Yuni Kusmiyati, Annisaputri Prasistyami, Heni Puji Wahyuningsih, Hesty Widyasih, Qorinah Estiningtyas Sakilah Adnani

Kesmas

The use of long hormonal contraceptives can disrupt the balance of estrogen in the body, resulting in abnormal cell changes. This study aimed to determine a correlation between the duration of hormonal contraception and risk of cervical cancer. This study used a case-control design. The population were patients who had examined at a cancer installation and obstetrics-gynecology polyclinic Dr. Sardjito Hospital in 2018. Case samples were 95 women have cervical cancer diagnosis and control were 95 women with a negative pap smear. Sampling with random sampling. Dependent variable cervical cancer and independent variable the duration of hormonal contraception are obtained …

Private Midwives’ Perceptions On Barriers And Enabling Factors To Voluntary Counselling And Hiv Test (Vct) In Bali, Indonesia, Dinar Saurmauli Lubis, Lpl Wulandari, Ni Luh Putu Suariyani, Kadek Tresna Adhi, Sari Andajani

Kesmas

In Indonesia, more than half of pregnant women seek antenatal care (ANC) at private midwifery clinics. The midwives play an important role in advocating for voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) uptake among pregnant women during ANC. This study examined midwives’ perception of barriers and enabling factors with regards to refer pregnant women for HIV testing. The study was conducted in Denpasar City and Badung District, two localities in Bali with high HIV prevalence. Two focus groups discussions with 15 private midwives and five in-depth interviews were conducted. Data were transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis methods were used to examine patterns …

Challenges To Diabetes Self-Management For Adults With Type 2 Diabetes In Low-Resource Settings In Mexico City: A Qualitative Descriptive Study, Robin Whittemore, Mireya Vilar-Compte, Selene De La Cerda, Denise Marron, Rosabelle Conover, Roberta Delvy, Annel Lozano-Marrufo, Rafael Pérez-Escamilla

Department of Public Health Scholarship and Creative Works

Background: The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) in Mexico is one of the highest in the world, with high morbidity and mortality, and difficulty meeting glycemic targets. The purpose of this study was to identify the challenges for T2D self-management as perceived by both adults with T2D and health care providers in primary health clinics from Seguro Popular in Mexico City.

Methods: This was a qualitative descriptive study conducted in three Seguro Popular primary care clinics in Mexico City using convenience sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants and data were analyzed using a content analysis approach.

Results: The …

"Courage 2 Test": An Evaluation Of A Social Media Marketing Campaign To Increase Hiv Testing Among Young Black Men, Jamal T. Jones, Laura F. Salazar, Richard A. Crosby

Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a social media marketing (SMM) campaign designed to increase HIV testing among young Black men attending a public university in Atlanta, GA. “Courage 2 Test” was a three-month SMM campaign (launched from February 2017 to April 2017) that included targeted Facebook and Instagram advertisements to encourage HIV testing. Students completed an online survey via two cross-sectional samples (n=106 at baseline and n=98 post campaign). Campaign evaluation involved assessing the effects of campaign exposure and the pre/post-grouping variable on ever testing for HIV and testing for HIV in the previous six months via …

Short Relative Leg Length Is Associated With Overweight And Obesity In Mexican Immigrant Women, Mireya Vilar-Compte, James Macinko, Beth C. Weitzman, Carlos M. Avendaño-Villela

Department of Public Health Scholarship and Creative Works

Background: Prior research suggests that undernutrition and enteric infections predispose children to stunted growth. Undernutrition and infections have been associated with limited access to healthy diets, lack of sanitation, and access barriers to healthcare - all associated with human rights. Stunting has also been documented to be a major determinant of subsequent obesity and non-communicable diseases. Short leg length relative to stature during adulthood seems to be a good proxy indicator tracking such barriers, and has been reported to be associated with adverse health effects during adulthood. Our objective was to examine the association between relative leg length (as measured …

Determinan Kejadian Kejang Demam Pada Balita Di Rumah Sakit Ibu Dan Anak Budhi Mulia Pekanbaru, Zulmeliza Rasyid, Dian Kusuma Astuti, Christine Vita Gloria Purba

Jurnal Epidemiologi Kesehatan Indonesia

Kejang demam adalah bangkitan kejang yang dapat terjadi pada anak berumur 6 bulan sampai 5 tahun yang mengalami kenaikan suhu tubuh (suhu diatas 380C) yang tidak disebabkan oleh proses intracranial. Di Rumah Sakit Ibu dan Anak Budhi Mulia angka kejadian kejang demam pada balita tahun 2017 berjumlah 98 kasus dengan proporsi kasus yaitu 34,03%. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk menggambarkan dan mengetahui determinan kejadian kejang demam pada balita di RSIA Budhi Mulia Pekanbaru tahun 2015-2017. Desain Penelitian adalahcase control. Populasi sebanyak 1.119 orang dengan besar sampel sebanyak 144 dengan perbandingan 1:1 di mana 72 untuk kasus dan 72 untuk kontrol. Teknik …

Determinan Yang Meningkatkan Risiko Terinfeksi Hiv Pada Wargabinaan Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Dan Rumah Tahanan Di Indonesia: Studi Tinjauan Pustaka 2007-2017, Mondastri Korib Sudaryo

Jurnal Epidemiologi Kesehatan Indonesia

Wargabinaan pemasyarakatan (WBP) diduga berisiko terinfeksi HIV selama tinggal di lembaga pemasyarakatan (lapas) dan rumah tahanan (rutan) akibat menyuntik narkotika dan perilaku berisiko lainnya. Studi ini bertujuan mengetahui determinan yang meningkatkan faktor risiko terinfeksi HIV di kalangan WBP di lapas/rutan di Indonesia. Rancangan studi adalah tinjauan pustaka sistematik (systematic literature review) yang merangkum dan membandingkan hasil studi dari 12 artikel yang diterbitkan sejak 2007 2017 di jurnal nasional/internasional berbahasa Inggris/Indonesia mengenai karakteristik dan determinan infeksi HIV pada populasi WBP yang tinggal di lapas/rutan di Indonesia. Karakteristik demografis WBP: umumnya laki laki; usia rata-rata 30 tahun (rentang: 21-51 tahun); sebagian besar <=SMU; setengahnya menikah. Prevalensi HIV di kalangan WBP di beberapa lapas: 10%-56%. Tiga survei nasional tahun 2011, 2013, 2015 menunjukkanprevalence rate antara 1,2% – 3%. Proporsi perilaku berisiko: menyuntik narkotika (antara 5% - 66%), berbagi jarum suntik (28%-47%), kontak seksual tidak aman dengan sesama WBP (2%-13%), atau dengan WPS (96%), pakai tattoo (2%-56%), atau tindik (5%-13%), minum alkohol (47%). Dari 3 survey yang sama tingkat prevalensi Sifilis antara 2,1%– 5%. Determinan/faktor risiko terinfeksi HIV: menggunakan narkotika suntik (OR antara 11,4 - 104,8), pakai tatoo (OR: 1,7 -2,4), pakai tindik (OR = 4,4), seks tidak aman (OR=1,9), terinfeksi Sifilis (OR=4,2). Faktor-faktor penting yang meningkatkan risiko terinfeksi HIV di kalangan WBP di lapas/rutan adalah penggunaan narkotika suntik, berbagi jarum suntik tidak steril, kontak seksual dengan sesama WBP &/ WPS, terinfeksi Sifilis dan memakai tato/tindik.