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Full-Text Articles in Psychiatry and Psychology
Effects Of Time Pressure On The Use Of An Automated Decision Support System For Strike Planning, Yves Boussemart, Birsen Donmez, M. L. Cummings, Jonathan Las Fargeas
Effects Of Time Pressure On The Use Of An Automated Decision Support System For Strike Planning, Yves Boussemart, Birsen Donmez, M. L. Cummings, Jonathan Las Fargeas
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
This paper describes the results of an experiment designed to examine the effects of time pressure on behavioral patterns. The main research hypothesis is that people under time pressure tend to increasingly rely on automation in order to cope with the added workload. The context is that of a missile strike planner having to create a set of matches between resources (missiles) and requirements (missions). We introduce time pressure by changing the temporal requirements towards the end of the mission. Overall performance, calls to automation and qualitative strategies are recorded and analyzed using ANOVA and other nonparametric tests. The main …
Utility And Recognition Of Lines And Linear Patterns On Electronic Displays Depicting Aeronautical Charting Information, Divya C. Chandra
Utility And Recognition Of Lines And Linear Patterns On Electronic Displays Depicting Aeronautical Charting Information, Divya C. Chandra
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
A study was conducted to explore the utility and recognition of lines and linear patterns on electronic displays depicting aeronautical charting information, such as electronic charts and moving map displays. The goal of this research is to support the development of more standardized and consistent lines and linear patterns for these displays. Data were collected from 273 professional and private pilots. First pilots sorted the names of 65 types of lines and linear patterns in terms of utility of the item. Next they tried to identify nine test linear patterns shown in isolation. Results of the sorting task indicated that …
Decision Factors Influencing Stimulant Use Among Fighter Aircrew During Combat Operations, Russell K. Gore M.D., Eric D. Hermes M.D.
Decision Factors Influencing Stimulant Use Among Fighter Aircrew During Combat Operations, Russell K. Gore M.D., Eric D. Hermes M.D.
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
During long combat missions in fighter aircraft, passive in-flight fatigue countermeasures are often not feasible. As a result, stimulant medications (Go Pills) may be used in-flight. The present study attempts to describe the individual decision factors influencing stimulant use during combat operations. Methods: 35 deployed F-15E aircrews participated in this study. Prior to the deployment, interviews were conducted to identify factors influencing the inflight decision to use stimulants. Based on this qualitative information, a novel survey instrument was developed. Results: Surveys were completed after 111 sorties. Results were summarized graphically. Conclusions: Active and anticipated in-flight fatigue were the most common …
Human-Assisted Logistics Optimization (Halo): Support For Timely Logistics Decision-Making, David E. Weldon
Human-Assisted Logistics Optimization (Halo): Support For Timely Logistics Decision-Making, David E. Weldon
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
The need for rapid response capabilities and effective joint operations dictates a new approach in which deployment planning is integrated into the mission-planning processes. In the research reported here, we explored new technologies to enable rapid identification of feasible transportation options and enhance shared awareness of commander’s intent and inter-command collaboration. Our solution extends state-of-the-art Tabu Search algorithms, producing effective transportation solutions in significantly less time than current models. The human guidance and collaborative components of HALO enhance performance by accommodating dynamic operational requirements. HALO benchmark tests demonstrated superiority to other optimization algorithms on Multi-Vehicle, Pickup and Delivery Problems with …
The Mystery Of Distributed Learning, Gavan Lintern
The Mystery Of Distributed Learning, Gavan Lintern
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
There are contrasting opinions about the value of distributed learning. Several textbooks on general training issues promote it as an effective training strategy while many researchers who have focused specifically on this topic argue that distributed practice is no more effective than non-distributed practice. It is noteworthy that most who promote distributed learning base their opinion on belief rather than on experimental research while most who argue that it is of no value base their opinions on empirical data restricted primarily to the learning of simple motor skills. Additionally, much of the distributed learning research has employed the experimentally convenient …
On Adaptive Autimation As A Solution To The Gloc Conundrum, Lloyd D. Tripp, Joel S. Warm, Gerald Matthews, Peter Y. Chiu, R. Bruce Bracken
On Adaptive Autimation As A Solution To The Gloc Conundrum, Lloyd D. Tripp, Joel S. Warm, Gerald Matthews, Peter Y. Chiu, R. Bruce Bracken
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Gravity-induced loss of consciousness (GLOC) is a major problem facing fighter pilots. In the throes of GLOC, pilots can travel 12 miles without control of their aircraft. The GLOC problem has proven to be difficult to resolve. Solutions involving repeated exposures to GLOC, G-suit pressure manipulation, intense sensory stimulation, and exposure to –G following the GLOC event have been unsuccessful. It is evident that a different approach is needed. One possibility might be an adaptive automation system to warn pilots of the imminence of a GLOC event. A key issue in adaptive automation is the cue to be employed in …
Example Of Work Domain Analysis Applied To Total Energy Control System, Matthijs Amelink, M.M. (René) Van Paassen, Max Mulder
Example Of Work Domain Analysis Applied To Total Energy Control System, Matthijs Amelink, M.M. (René) Van Paassen, Max Mulder
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Automation is often accused of adding to the complexity of a system and unnecessarily increasing operator’s workload, and the potential for human error. An approach is needed that guides designers to make the right design choices. Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) is a promising approach. However, this field is still young and tangible examples of automation design with an explicit CSE approach do not exist. This paper describes how the design of Total Energy Control System (TECS) that was founded in the late 1970’s can be regarded as an example avant la letter. TECS is an automated flight control system designed …
Are We Getting The Message Across? Human Factors And System Safety Education – What Impact Has It Had?, Sue Burdekin
Are We Getting The Message Across? Human Factors And System Safety Education – What Impact Has It Had?, Sue Burdekin
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Education in human factors and systems safety has been incorporated into aviation degree programs at university level for many years. However, there has been little research to measure empirically the impact that this education has had on safety outcomes in the field when the students have completed their degrees. A study is presently being conducted involving graduates from the University of NSW at the Australian Defence Force Academy in Australia who had obtained the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Aviation. Following their graduation, these students had been posted to various flying squadrons within the Australian Defence Force in an …
Conceptualizing Spatial Relations In Flight Training, Edwin Hutchins, Will Newsome, Christina Middleton
Conceptualizing Spatial Relations In Flight Training, Edwin Hutchins, Will Newsome, Christina Middleton
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
In the aviation human factors literature, situation awareness (SA) is usually described as arising from disembodied mental processes. Action has virtually no role in current theories of SA. This disembodied view is out of step with contemporary theories that take cognitive processes to be distributed, situated, and above all, embodied. This shift in theory suggests that SA ought to be an embodied phenomenon, and given the highly spatial nature of SA, it would be quite surprising to discover that the body did not play a key role in the construction, elaboration, and maintenance of SA. In this paper we examine …
Team Errors In Air Traffic Control: Analysis Based On Voluntary Reports, Renli Lu, Yan Zhou, Mu Zhou
Team Errors In Air Traffic Control: Analysis Based On Voluntary Reports, Renli Lu, Yan Zhou, Mu Zhou
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
By using the framework of team errors taxonomy(Sasou & Reason, 1999）and Threat and Error Management (TEM), operation errors reported in the ATC voluntary safety report system are analysed. Team errors have been proved in this research as a main risk source of ATC, a sophisticated social-technical system. Team errors contributing to 31% of the total reporting ATC errors. According to the results of sample statistics and analysis of typical cases of team errors, the main types and distributions of ATC team errors have been identified, as well as the framework and importance of sequencing of the team PSFs （Performance Shaping …
A Compatibility Analysis Of Attitude Display Formats, Motonori Yamaguchi, Robert W. Proctor
A Compatibility Analysis Of Attitude Display Formats, Motonori Yamaguchi, Robert W. Proctor
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
The present research investigated factors that contribute to the compatibility of attitude display formats with actions taken to control an aircraft. In three experiments, participants performed a speeded response task in which they responded by banking an aircraft according to a nonspatial aspect of lateralized stimuli. The format of attitude display was horizon-moving or aircraftmoving, and each participant used normal and reversed controls. These manipulations dissociated influences of three response factors (aircraft, display, hand) on the stimulus-response compatibility, or Simon, effect. The influences of the three factors on the Simon effect were nearly additive, and their contributions depended on the …
Manual And Cooperative Control Mission Management Methods For Wide Area Search Munitions, Thomas R. Carretta, Lamar Warfield, Michael J. Patzek
Manual And Cooperative Control Mission Management Methods For Wide Area Search Munitions, Thomas R. Carretta, Lamar Warfield, Michael J. Patzek
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Wide Area Search Munitions (WASM) combine the attributes of unmanned aerial vehicles with those of traditional munitions. The WASM concept envisions artificially intelligent munitions that communicate and coordinate with one another and with human operators to effectively perform their tasks. This study examined target acquisition for unaided operators with that of an automated cooperative controller for a complex task involving the prosecution of groundbased targets. Participants completed nine trials for each control mode (manual and cooperative) by number of WASMs (4, 8, and 16) combination. Target hit rate was not affected by control mode or number of WASMs. However, target …
Robot Operator Specifications Derived From The Occupational Information Network, Michael D. Coovert, Linda R. Elliott
Robot Operator Specifications Derived From The Occupational Information Network, Michael D. Coovert, Linda R. Elliott
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
The use of robots in aviation is widespread, for use as targets, decoys, remote sensing, reconnaissance, and increasingly for combat missions. Robots come in all forms and capabilities, from handheld micro air vehicles to hypersonic versions capable of high altitude long distance missions. At the same time, ground-based robots have proven effective for both military and civilian applications such as manufacturing and remote sensing / manipulations. Certainly, Talon and Packbot robots have proven their worth in battle conditions. Just as there is great variance in the type of robot being developed and utilized, so too is there tremendous variation operator …
Vigilant Spirit Control Station: A Research Testbed For Multi-Uas Supervisory Control Interfaces, Allen J. Rowe, Kristen K. Liggett Ph.D., Jason E. Davis
Vigilant Spirit Control Station: A Research Testbed For Multi-Uas Supervisory Control Interfaces, Allen J. Rowe, Kristen K. Liggett Ph.D., Jason E. Davis
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Since its inception, the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) has adapted to military life and has subsequently become an integral part of modern day warfare. Although unmanned, this technology remains dependent on human interaction for optimal function. Bridging the gap between rapidly advancing technology and the human, the Vigilant Spirit Control Station (VSCS) serves as a multi-faceted facilitator in areas ranging from research to combat missions. The result, consequentially, is an increase in the efficiency of the program by enabling a single operator to supervise multiple vehicles. Streamlining technology is tantamount to the program’s success. Developed with this in mind, VSCS …
Fractal Time Series Analysis Of Human Heartbeat Intervals In A Change Blindness Task, Sheldon M. Russell, Gregory J. Funke, Camilla C. Knott, Benjamin A. Knott
Fractal Time Series Analysis Of Human Heartbeat Intervals In A Change Blindness Task, Sheldon M. Russell, Gregory J. Funke, Camilla C. Knott, Benjamin A. Knott
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Fractal analysis is a set of techniques used in the study of complex systems to understand patterns of variability that are often observed in non-linear and natural systems. These techniques have been successfully applied to the study of human physiology, such as gait, heart rate variability, and respiration (West, 2004). Understanding variability in physiological measures may provide insight into human performance, individual workload, and stress. As an exploration of the possible contributions of fractal analysis to human performance, heart rate data from an existing research study was re-analyzed using methods common in fractal analysis of time series data. Results indicate …
Predicting The Unpredictable: Estimating Human Performance Parameters For Off-Nominal Events, Becky L. Hooey, Christopher D. Wickens, Ellen Salud, Angelia Sebok, Shaun Hutchins, Brian F. Gore
Predicting The Unpredictable: Estimating Human Performance Parameters For Off-Nominal Events, Becky L. Hooey, Christopher D. Wickens, Ellen Salud, Angelia Sebok, Shaun Hutchins, Brian F. Gore
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
A parameter meta-analysis was conducted to characterize human responses to off-nominal events. The probability of detecting an off-nominal event was influenced by characteristics of the offnominal event scenario (phase of flight, expectancy, and event location) and the presence of advanced cockpit technologies (head-up displays, highway-in-the-sky displays, datalink, and graphical route displays). The results revealed that the presence of these advanced technologies hindered event detection reflecting cognitive tunneling and pilot complacency effects.
Conflict Alerts And False Alerts In En-Route Air Traffic Control: An Empirical Study Of Causes And Consequences, Christopher D. Wickens, Stephen Rice, David Keller, Jamie Hughes, Shaun Hutchins
Conflict Alerts And False Alerts In En-Route Air Traffic Control: An Empirical Study Of Causes And Consequences, Christopher D. Wickens, Stephen Rice, David Keller, Jamie Hughes, Shaun Hutchins
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
We analyzed the extent to which a high false alert rate of the conflict alerting (CA) system in five ATC facilities was the cause of a “cry-wolf” effect, whereby true alerts of a pending loss of separation were associated with either controller failure to respond or a delayed response. Radar track data surrounding 497 CA’s were examined and from these we extracted information as to whether the alert was true or false, whether a trajectory change was (response) or was not (non-response) evident, whether a loss of separation occurred, and the controller response time to the CA. Results revealed an …
Assisting Air Traffic Control In Planning And Monitoring Continuous Descent Approach Procedures, A. Van Der Eijk, M. Mulder, M.M. (René) Van Paassen, A. C. In ‘T Veld
Assisting Air Traffic Control In Planning And Monitoring Continuous Descent Approach Procedures, A. Van Der Eijk, M. Mulder, M.M. (René) Van Paassen, A. C. In ‘T Veld
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
In advanced noise abatement procedures, the approach of an aircraft is optimized to reduce the noise on the ground. A drawback of many noise abatement procedures is that air traffic controllers are forced to increase spacing, leading to a significant reduction of runway capacity. A display, named the Time-Space Diagram, has been developed to assist controllers in metering, sequencing and merging aircraft flying noise abatement procedures such as the Continuous Descent Approach. Although initial tests were promising, it was recommended that the information could be enhanced by supporting common controller spacing techniques. The improved display was tested in an experiment, …
Usage Data From Users Of Two Synthetic Vision Systems, Dennis B. Beringer
Usage Data From Users Of Two Synthetic Vision Systems, Dennis B. Beringer
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Although much research has been conducted regarding display design and formatting criteria for terrain-depicting or synthetic-vision displays, little data have been collected concerning how General Aviation pilots use fielded displays. Structured interviews were conducted with a small sample (10; 33% response rate) of users of two fielded synthetic-vision (SV) displays, one with selectable Highway-In-the-Sky (HITS) guidance and one without. Questions were asked concerning pilots’ experience (both general and specific with display systems) and use of the SV systems by phase of flight. Use rates for the first system (with a selectable HITS) were high, with “always used” being reported for …
Analysis Of Ramp Damage Incidents And Implications For Future Composite Aircraft Structure, Barbara G. Kanki Ph.D., Connie L. Brasil
Analysis Of Ramp Damage Incidents And Implications For Future Composite Aircraft Structure, Barbara G. Kanki Ph.D., Connie L. Brasil
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
As aircraft manufacturers use increasing amounts of composite materials in primary aircraft structures, an understanding of how composite damage may occur is crucial. One likely setting for composite damage events is the ramp and gate areas where “ramp rash” is a common occurrence. Costly consequences to airlines and the potential to jeopardize safety are an everyday hazard. In order to better understand how such events unfold in today’s operations, 104 ramp damage reports that were voluntarily submitted to the NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) were analyzed. Factors including environmental conditions, aircraft state, aircraft damage locations and types of ramp …
Testing A Multidimensional Nonveridical Aircraft Collision Avoidance System, Experiments 3, 4, William R. Knecht
Testing A Multidimensional Nonveridical Aircraft Collision Avoidance System, Experiments 3, 4, William R. Knecht
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Veridical displays represent realistic scenes. State spaces are nonveridical displays representing ndimensional information. This research tests an aircraft separation maintenance display based on a nonveridical state space. In two experiments, licensed general aviation pilots flew flight scenarios, trying to deviate as little as possible from a pre-assigned course while still maintaining standard enroute separation from traffic. Flight performance using only a veridical cockpit display of traffic information with conflict alert capability was compared to performance augmented by a 4D nonveridical state space collision avoidance system. Results suggest that nonveridical display enhances operator performance on an aircraft separation maintenance task.
Stan And The Moon Illusion: Drilling Down At One End Of The Human Systems Integration Elephant, Hector M. Acosta Ph.D.
Stan And The Moon Illusion: Drilling Down At One End Of The Human Systems Integration Elephant, Hector M. Acosta Ph.D.
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Dr. Stanley Nebuchadnezzar Roscoe invested decades researching a mystery born of observations separated by over two millennia. Characteristically, he addressed this peculiar problem set based on its Total System Performance implications, inspiring students and colleagues along the way. It was during his dissertation research that Stan found that pilots attempting landings using periscopic displays needed about 20% magnification to avoid landing long and hot. He did not know “the why” of his observation or its pragmatic solution. To Stan’s great frustration, nothing in the existing literature explained the phenomena. Years later, Stan and his students hit upon a mechanism that …
The Psychology Of Aviation Surprise: An 8 Year Update Regarding The Noticing Of Black Swans, Christopher D. Wickens
The Psychology Of Aviation Surprise: An 8 Year Update Regarding The Noticing Of Black Swans, Christopher D. Wickens
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
We describe the limitation that people have in noticing very unexpected, surprising “offnominal”, or black swan events, as reflected in the psychology of change blindness; and how this limitation can compromise aviation safety. We then describe a three phase program of research examining pilot response to these black swan events, using (1) a meta-analysis to reveal the miss rate in noticing black swans, (2) a model of visual attention to predict this miss rate, and (3) the same model to make predictions regarding the safety impact of NextGen technology and procedures.
Modeling Cockpit Interface Usage During Lunar Landing Redesignation, Zarrin K. Chua, Laura M. Major, Karen M. Feigh
Modeling Cockpit Interface Usage During Lunar Landing Redesignation, Zarrin K. Chua, Laura M. Major, Karen M. Feigh
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Fulfilling NASA’s space exploration objectives requires precision landing to reach lunar sites of interest. During the approach and landing stages, a landing point redesignation (LPR) display will provide information to the crew regarding the characteristics of alternate touchdown points. Building on a previous study which examined crew tasks during LPR but did not account for the specialized behavior of experts, this investigation will present a new task sequence model, specific to expert decision-making. This analysis furthers the development of a predictive task execution model, which is used to test the efficacy of alternate information display and operator actuator design concepts. …
Post-Traumatic Stress In Flight Attendant's Labor, Filipieva Tatiana Phd
Post-Traumatic Stress In Flight Attendant's Labor, Filipieva Tatiana Phd
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Airline crashes, hijackings, turbulence incidents and other emergencies have the potential for inflicting severe emotional trauma in flight attendants involved either directly or indirectly. A critical incident is a part of the extreme professions in aviation. Although the aviation industry attempted to bring help following an air disaster, post-traumatic stress is still one of the most misdiagnosed and ignored illnesses that can beset an individual. In the article, which is based on the results of Russian and American aviation psychologists’ research, we try to answer the questions: How post-traumatic stress affects cabin crew’s work performance and flight attendants’ life? How …
Adaptation Of Crm Training For The Railway Industry Operational Safety Benefits, Matthew T.S. Tsang, Hans-Juergen Hoermann
Adaptation Of Crm Training For The Railway Industry Operational Safety Benefits, Matthew T.S. Tsang, Hans-Juergen Hoermann
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
In aviation, Crew Resource Management (CRM) was developed to address safety issues derived from accident and incident investigations. As CRM has proven its effectiveness by improving teamwork, communication and staff responses to operational hazards, there have been many attempts to expand this concept into other high-risk sectors such as medical, nuclear, or military. Although some work was also conducted to modify CRM for the railway industry, no such experiences yet existed in China or Hong Kong. Having observed the effectiveness of CRM and Line Oriented Training (LOT) in aviation, this paper documents the introduction and initial evaluation of CRM and …
Training To Reduce Aviation Maintenance Error: Assessing Maintenance Resource Management Programs In Commercial Aviation, Erin E. Block, Edward J. Sabin, Manoj S. Patankar
Training To Reduce Aviation Maintenance Error: Assessing Maintenance Resource Management Programs In Commercial Aviation, Erin E. Block, Edward J. Sabin, Manoj S. Patankar
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Maintenance resource management (MRM) training is intended to integrate existing technical skills of maintenance employees with interpersonal skills/human factors knowledge to improve communication effectiveness & maintenance safety. The FAA suggests successful MRM training not only teaches error avoidance, but also the adoption of attitudes that support a safety culture. This coincides with FAA encouragement to incorporate systems theory into MRM training to put human factors issues in larger organizational context. Many programs currently use the MRM/TOQ survey to assess the impact of MRM training & its effectiveness in changing safety-related attitudes.
The Effects Of Success Related Pressure On Information Processing Strategies And Plan Continuation Error, Bourgeon Léonore, Valot Claude, Fauconnet Sophie, Loyau Fanny, Navarro Claude
The Effects Of Success Related Pressure On Information Processing Strategies And Plan Continuation Error, Bourgeon Léonore, Valot Claude, Fauconnet Sophie, Loyau Fanny, Navarro Claude
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
An experiment was conducted to explore whether plan continuation errors could be explained by two types of perseveration behaviours: Perseveration in a wrong Representation do the Situation (PRS) and Perseveration in a risky Plan of Action (PPA). Effects of success-related pressure and flight phase on pilots performance were also examined. Six scenarios were created where expected or unexpected threats had to be managed. Pilots chose between three plans of actions corresponding to PPA, PRS and Flexibility. Results showed that the two types of perseveration could effectively explain plan continuation errors even though PPA characterised cruise phase and PRS was more …
How Differences In Spatial Ability Influence Inexperienced Users In A Visual Perceptual Aviation Task, Michael T. Curtis, Florian G. Jentsch, Crystal Maraj
How Differences In Spatial Ability Influence Inexperienced Users In A Visual Perceptual Aviation Task, Michael T. Curtis, Florian G. Jentsch, Crystal Maraj
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
The approach and landing phase of flight is widely recognized as one of the most difficult phases of flight. More specifically, professionals in aviation training report difficulty in training inexperienced pilots on execution of visual approaches. The current paper focuses on our efforts to develop a perceptual skill trainer using a static image discrimination task. From a perceptual standpoint there are a number of documented visual environmental cues that have been found to impact one’s ability to judge distances. These distracting cues can cause individuals to misjudge distance to landing surfaces, and subsequently result in an unstable or unsafe approach. …
Assessing Novel Adaptive Displays Impact On Pilot Performance, Sean L. Guarino, Karen Harper, Emilie Roth, Dahai Liu, Mark Bartosiewicz, Dennis Vincenzi
Assessing Novel Adaptive Displays Impact On Pilot Performance, Sean L. Guarino, Karen Harper, Emilie Roth, Dahai Liu, Mark Bartosiewicz, Dennis Vincenzi
International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2009
Combat aircraft advances have led to a dramatic increase in the operational tempo facing the Navy pilot, increasing the likelihood for Situation Awareness (SA) failures, biased decision-making and information overload. We designed a system for constructing intelligent adaptive displays to address these issues and, within it, designed and evaluated two interfaces targeted at tactical SA challenges: (1) a Weapons Employment Zone (WEZ) Display designed to support awareness of combat geometry; and (2) an Adaptive Boundary Display (ABD) designed to warn pilots of impending border infractions that would compromise Rules of Engagement (ROEs). We tested the ability of these displays to …