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Articles 31 - 57 of 57

Full-Text Articles in Neurosciences

Inhibitory Processes In Young Children And Individual Variation In Short-Term Memory, Kimberly A. Espy, Rebecca Bull Nov 2005

Inhibitory Processes In Young Children And Individual Variation In Short-Term Memory, Kimberly A. Espy, Rebecca Bull

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

A precise definition of executive control remains elusive, related in part to the variations among executive tasks in the nature of the task demands, which complicate the identification of test-specific versus construct-specific performance. In this study, tasks were chosen that varied in the nature of the stimulus (verbal, nonverbal), response (naming, somatic motor), conflict type (proactive interference, distraction), and inhibitory process (attention control, response suppression) required. Then performance differences were examined in 184 young children (age range = 3 years 6 months to 6 years 1 month), comparing those with high (5 or more digits) and low (3 or fewer …

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The Contribution Of Executive Functions To Emergent Mathematic Skills In Preschool Children, Kimberly Espy, Melanie D. Mcdiarmid, Mary F. Cwik, Melissa Meade Stalets, Arlena Hamby, Theresa E. Senn Nov 2004

The Contribution Of Executive Functions To Emergent Mathematic Skills In Preschool Children, Kimberly Espy, Melanie D. Mcdiarmid, Mary F. Cwik, Melissa Meade Stalets, Arlena Hamby, Theresa E. Senn

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Mathematical ability is related to both activation of the prefrontal cortex in neuroimaging studies of adults and to executive functions in school-age children. The purpose of this study was to determine whether executive functions were related to emergent mathematical proficiency in preschool children. Preschool children (N= 96) were administered an executive function battery that was reduced empirically to working memory (WM), inhibitory control (IC), and shifting abilities by calculating composite scores derived from principal component analysis. Both WM and IC predicted early arithmetic competency, with the observed relations robust after controlling statistically for child age, maternal education, and child vocabulary. …

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The Development Of A Trial Making Test In Young Children: The Trails-P, Kimberly Espy, Mary F. Cwik Nov 2004

The Development Of A Trial Making Test In Young Children: The Trails-P, Kimberly Espy, Mary F. Cwik

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Preschool children have a more limited verbal repertoire, less proficient manual skills, and more variable attention spans relative to those of school age, with comparatively few neuropsychological tasks available for use in this age range. A prototypic neuropsychological test, the Trail Making Test, was adapted for use with young children, the TRAILS-P, using a developmentally salient storybook format with colorful stimuli in differing conditions with varying executive demands. The TRAILS-P was administered to 103 normally developing preschoolers between 2 and 6 years of age; 30 of these children were retested within one month to determine test reliability. Correlations among latencies …

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Using Developmental, Cognitive, And Neuroscience Approaches To Understand Executive Control In Young Children, K. A. Espy Nov 2004

Using Developmental, Cognitive, And Neuroscience Approaches To Understand Executive Control In Young Children, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

The 7 articles in this special issue address the nature of executive control in young children. Executive control is framed in a developmental context, where the unique aspects of cognition in this age range are considered. The set of articles demonstrates the multidisciplinary approaches to study cognition in young children that includes application of cognitive, neuroscience, and developmental paradigms in typically developing youngsters, as well as those affected by clinical conditions, such as traumatic brain injury, exposure to low levels of lead in the environment, and prematurity. Although much work remains to be done, these study results are illustrative of …

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Executive Function In Preschool Children: Examination Through Everyday Behavior, P. K. Isquith, G. Gioia, K. A. Espy Nov 2004

Executive Function In Preschool Children: Examination Through Everyday Behavior, P. K. Isquith, G. Gioia, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Clinical assessment of executive function in preschool-age children is challenging given limited availability of standardized tasks and preschoolers' variable ability to participate in lengthy formal evaluation procedures. Given the benefits of ecological validity of measuring behavior by rating scales, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000) was modified for use with children ages 2 through 5 years to assess executive functions in an everyday context. The scale development process, based on samples of 460 parents and 302 teachers, yielded a single 63-item measure with 5 related, but nonoverlapping, scales, with good internal consistency and …

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Using Path Analysis To Understand Executive Function Organization In Preschool Children, T. E. Senn, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann Nov 2004

Using Path Analysis To Understand Executive Function Organization In Preschool Children, T. E. Senn, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

There continues to be no consensus definition of executive functions. One way to understand different executive function components is to study abilities at their emergence, that is, early in development, and use advanced statistical methods to understand the interrelations among executive processes. However, to fully determine the constructs of interest, these methods often require complete data on a large battery of tasks, which are difficult to obtain with young children. Path analysis is an alternative statistical technique that requires only a single measure of each construct, yet still allows researchers to investigate complex relations among measures, to compare nested models, …

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A Comparison Of Performance On The Towers Of London And Hanoi In Young Children, Rebecca Bull, Kimberly A. Espy, Theresa E. Senn Nov 2004

A Comparison Of Performance On The Towers Of London And Hanoi In Young Children, Rebecca Bull, Kimberly A. Espy, Theresa E. Senn

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

The Towers of London (TOL) and Hanoi (TOH) have been viewed as equivalent measures of planning and/or problem solving, although recent evidence in adults suggests that the underlying measurement characteristics of these two tasks may differ. As tower tasks are one of the few instruments that can be used to assess executive functioning in young children, the cognitive demands for both tasks merit further examination. Methods: The relation among tower tasks and those of short-term memory, inhibition, and shifting ability were examined in a sample of 118 typically developing young children (M age = 4 years, 9 months, SD = …

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Development Of Auditory Event-Related Potentials In Young Children And Relations To Word-Level Reading Abilities At Age 8 Years, Kimberly Espy, Dennis L. Molfese, Victoria J. Molfese, Arlene Modglin Nov 2004

Development Of Auditory Event-Related Potentials In Young Children And Relations To Word-Level Reading Abilities At Age 8 Years, Kimberly Espy, Dennis L. Molfese, Victoria J. Molfese, Arlene Modglin

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

A relationship between brain responses at birth and later emerging language and reading skills have been shown, but questions remain whether changes in brain responses after birth continue to predict the mastery of language-related skills such as reading development. To determine whether developmental changes in the brain-based perceptual skills are systematically related to differences in word-level reading proficiency at age 8 years, brain event-related potentials (ERPs) to speech and nonspeech stimuli were recorded annually at the ages of 1 through 8 years in a sample of 109 typically developing children. Two measures of word-level reading (one that requires decoding of …

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Effects Of Neurobehavioral Assessment On Feeding And Weight Gain In Preterm Neonates, T. E. Senn, K. A. Espy Nov 2003

Effects Of Neurobehavioral Assessment On Feeding And Weight Gain In Preterm Neonates, T. E. Senn, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Neonatal intensive care unit personnel and parents often are concerned that developmental assessment will tire preterm neonates and impair their feeding ability and subsequent weight gain. Therefore, the amount of fluid consumed by 108 preterm neonates (≤36.5 wk gestational age) was compared before and after administration of the Neurobehavioral Assessment of the Preterm Infant (NAPI). In addition, the weight gain of 35 preterm neonates who were administered the NAPI was compared with that of a matched control group of 35 preterm neonates who were not administered the NAPI. There were no differences in the amount of fluid consumed before and …

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Incidence And Correlates Of Breast Milk Feeding In Hospitalized Preterm Infants, K. A. Espy, T. E. Senn Nov 2003

Incidence And Correlates Of Breast Milk Feeding In Hospitalized Preterm Infants, K. A. Espy, T. E. Senn

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

The majority of epidemiological studies of breast feeding have been conducted in healthy, fullterm infant samples. Little is known about the incidence and correlates of breast milk feeding in preterm infants, particularly in those born outside of metropolitan areas. Therefore, hospital medical charts of 151 consecutively admitted preterm infants (

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Effects Of Environmental Measures On Intelligence In Young Children: Growth Curve Modeling Of Longitudinal Data, K. A. Espy, Victoria J. Molfese, L. Dilalla Nov 2003

Effects Of Environmental Measures On Intelligence In Young Children: Growth Curve Modeling Of Longitudinal Data, K. A. Espy, Victoria J. Molfese, L. Dilalla

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Examined the effects of different environmental measures on individual intellectual growth patterns in 105 young children participating in a longitudinal study. Intelligence (Stanford-Binet, 4th edition) was measured at ages 3 through 6 yrs, and child's environment was assessed at age 3 years using SES data and scores on the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory. Growth curve analyses revealed that HOME scores exerted a constant influence on the expected composite, verbal, and nonverbal intellectual skills at each age. Only SES influenced the rate of growth, specifically nonverbal intellectual skills. The magnitudes of these effects were moderate, but …

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Executive Functions In Preschool Children Born Preterm: Application Of Cognitive Neuroscience Paradigms, K. A. Espy, M. M. Stalets, M. D. Mcdiarmid, T. E. Senn, M. F. Cwik, A. Hamby Nov 2002

Executive Functions In Preschool Children Born Preterm: Application Of Cognitive Neuroscience Paradigms, K. A. Espy, M. M. Stalets, M. D. Mcdiarmid, T. E. Senn, M. F. Cwik, A. Hamby

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Although children born preterm are at risk for neuropsychological impairments at school age and adolescence, including difficulties with visual motor integration, spatial/constructional skills, attention, arithmetic, and nonverbal executive functions, specific neuropsychological outcome has not been investigated adequately in preschoolers. Application of cognitive neuroscience tasks offers the opportunity to characterize early executive functions in young children born preterm. In a preliminary sample of 29 preschool children born preterm (M birth gestational age=32.4 weeks), executive function outcome was compared to that of fullterm controls by contrasting performance on two prototypic delayed-response-type paradigms, Delayed Alternation and Spatial Reversal. Preschoolers born preterm correctly retrieved …

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Individual Differences In The Development Of Executive Function In Children: Lessons From The Delayed Response And A-Not-B Tasks, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann Nov 2002

Individual Differences In The Development Of Executive Function In Children: Lessons From The Delayed Response And A-Not-B Tasks, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

An explosion of research activity in the area of attention, memory, and executive function has been noted since the mid-1980s (Lyon & Krasnegor, 1996). The bulk of this activity, however, has focused on the examination of group differences in executive skills, with less attention devoted to the manner by which individual children differ in executive skills from their peers. This chapter explores individual differences from a developmental perspective, that is, by returning to the emergence of basic executive functions and tracing the subsequent manifestations by examining the individual patterns of change. Therefore, it first reviews the history of executive function …

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Confirmatory Factor Analysis Of The Behavior Rating Inventory Of Executive Function (Brief) In A Clinical Sample, G. G. Gioia, P. K. Isquith, P. D. Retzlaff, K. A. Espy Nov 2002

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Of The Behavior Rating Inventory Of Executive Function (Brief) In A Clinical Sample, G. G. Gioia, P. K. Isquith, P. D. Retzlaff, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Evidence for the validity of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000) based on internal structure was examined in a sample of children with mixed clinical diagnoses via maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. Four alternative factor models of children's executive function, based on current theories that posit a unidimensional versus fractionated model (Rabbitt, 1997; Shallice & Burgess, 1991), using the revised 9-scale BRIEF configuration that separates two components of the Monitor scale, were examined for model fit. A 3-factor structure best modeled the data when compared directly with 1-, 2-, and 4-factor models. …

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"Getting Into The Mouths" Of Preschoolers: A Method For Obtaining Buccal Samples For Later Genotyping, K. A. Espy, A. F. Hamby Nov 2002

"Getting Into The Mouths" Of Preschoolers: A Method For Obtaining Buccal Samples For Later Genotyping, K. A. Espy, A. F. Hamby

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

A new procedure is described by which to obtain buccal samples from preschool children for research investigations that include genotyping. Called the "Lollipop Tasting Game", the procedure involves three mason jars which were filled about halfway with water. Granulated sugar was added to each jar to make a noticeably sweet solution. Red food coloring was added to the first jar, a small bit of reconstituted lemon juice and yellow food coloring were added to the second jar, and finally, a bit of vanilla and blue food coloring were added to the last jar. The examiner dips cotton swabs in the …

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New Procedures To Assess Executive Functions In Preschool Children, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann, M. L. Glisky, M. D. Mcdiarmid Nov 2001

New Procedures To Assess Executive Functions In Preschool Children, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann, M. L. Glisky, M. D. Mcdiarmid

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Executive functions are difficult to assess in preschool children, yet the preschool period is particularly important, both in the development of behavioral control and of the brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex. Several tasks were adapted from developmental and neuroscience literature and then administered to 98 preschool children (30-, 36-, 42-, 48- and 60-month age groups). Executive function task performance was related largely to age group, but not to sex or intelligence. These tasks, then, were sensitive in this age range and may be useful to delineate distinct cognitive profiles among preschool children with various neurological and developmental disorders.

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Chemotherapeutic Cns Prophylaxis And Neuropsychologic Change In Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Prospective Study, K. A. Espy, I. M. Moore, P. M. Kaufmann, J. H. Kramer, K. Matthay, J. J. Hutter Nov 2001

Chemotherapeutic Cns Prophylaxis And Neuropsychologic Change In Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Prospective Study, K. A. Espy, I. M. Moore, P. M. Kaufmann, J. H. Kramer, K. Matthay, J. J. Hutter

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether prophylactic CNS chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia is associated with declines in neuropsychological abilities. METHODS: Growth curve analysis was used to examine neuropsychological outcome and treatment-related change in children (N = 30) who were treated at two childhood cancer centers. A comprehensive test battery was administered at baseline (8 months), 2, 3, and 4 years postdiagnosis (age at diagnosis M = 5.90 years, SD = 4.2C). RESULTS: Results indicated modest declines in arithmetic, visual motor integration, and verbal fluency. Intrathecal and systemic treatment was related to poorer visual motor integration at 4 years postdiagnosis and …

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Cognitive Consequences And Central Nervous System Injury Following Treatment For Childhood Leukemia, I. M. Moore, K. A. Espy, P. Kaufmann, J. Kramer, K. Kaemingk, P. Miketova, N. Mollova, M. Kaspar, A. Pasvogel, K. Schram, W. Wara, J. Hutter, K. Matthay Nov 2000

Cognitive Consequences And Central Nervous System Injury Following Treatment For Childhood Leukemia, I. M. Moore, K. A. Espy, P. Kaufmann, J. Kramer, K. Kaemingk, P. Miketova, N. Mollova, M. Kaspar, A. Pasvogel, K. Schram, W. Wara, J. Hutter, K. Matthay

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationship between membrane damage and intellectual and academic abilities in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and pilot test a math intervention for children with ALL who were affected. DATA SOURCES: Research studies and review articles. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the prophylactic central nervous system (CNS) treatment for long-term disease-free survival, many children with ALL subsequently experience declines in intellectual and academic skills. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE: Improving academic abilities in children who have received CNS treatment is of high priority and may have longlasting implications on quality of life.

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Prenatal Cocaine Exposure And Prematurity: Neurodevelopmental Growth, K. A. Espy, D. J. Francis, M. L. Riese Nov 2000

Prenatal Cocaine Exposure And Prematurity: Neurodevelopmental Growth, K. A. Espy, D. J. Francis, M. L. Riese

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

The consequences of prematurity and prenatal cocaine exposure on early neurobehavior and physical growth were examined longitudinally in a sample of 20 cocaine-exposed and 20 nonexposed preterm neonates. The magnitude of the difference in physical growth acceleration related to prenatal cocaine exposure increased with increasing birth gestational age, whereas growth rate differences in irritability decreased. In contrast, prenatal cocaine exposure, independent of prematurity, was related to reduced attention skills at 36 wks conceptional age and increased rates of neurobehavioral change. The effects of prenatal cocaine exposure differed with respect to the degree of prematurity, depending on the nature of the …

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Construct Validity Of The Continuous Recognition Memory Test, K. L. Fuchs, J. H. Hannay, W. M. Huckeba, K. A. Espy Nov 1999

Construct Validity Of The Continuous Recognition Memory Test, K. L. Fuchs, J. H. Hannay, W. M. Huckeba, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

A principal factor analysis was performed on variables derived from a neuropsychological battery administered to 100 healthy young adults (aged 17-41 yrs) to investigate the construct validity of the Continuous Recognition Memory test (CRM). It was hypothesized that CRM "hits" and "false alarms" would load on different factors. The factors that emerged in the analysis were labeled Verbal Ability, Divided Attention, Attention to Visual Detail, Visuomotor Integration and Planning, and Learning and Memory. As expected, CRM hits had a significant loading on the Learning and Memory factor. However, CRM false alarms did not have a significant loading on the Divided …

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Neuropsychologic Function In Toddlers Exposed To Cocaine In Utero: A Preliminary Study, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann, M. L. Glisky Nov 1999

Neuropsychologic Function In Toddlers Exposed To Cocaine In Utero: A Preliminary Study, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann, M. L. Glisky

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Patterns of neuropsychological performance on A-not-B, inhibition, motor, cognitive, language, and behavior tasks were examined in 34 toddlers--17 cocaine-exposed (CE) and 17 nonexposed (NE) controls. CE toddlers exhibited greater perseveration, less inhibition, poorer emotional regulation, and less task orientation relative to NE toddlers. Overall cognitive and language skills and motor impairment status were comparable among CE and NE toddlers. Differences in perseveration, emotional regulation, and task orientation between CE and NE toddlers remained significant after statistically controlling for overall cognitive skill. Prenatal cocaine exposure may impart selective vulnerability for deficits in executive function, inhibition, and emotional regulation in toddlers, perhaps …

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Executive Functioning In Preschool Children: Performance On A-Not-B And Other Delayed Response Format Tasks, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann, M. D. Mcdiarmid, M. L. Glisky Nov 1999

Executive Functioning In Preschool Children: Performance On A-Not-B And Other Delayed Response Format Tasks, K. A. Espy, P. M. Kaufmann, M. D. Mcdiarmid, M. L. Glisky

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

The A-not-B (AB) task has been hypothesized to measure executive/frontal lobe function; however, the developmental and measurement characteristics of this task have not been investigated. The present study examined performance on AB and comparison tasks adapted from developmental and neuroscience literature in 117 1.9-5.5 yr old preschool children. Age significantly predicted performance on AB, Delayed Alternation, Spatial Reversal, Color Reversal, and Self-Control tasks. A 4-factor analytic model best fit task performance data. AB task indices loaded on 2 factors with measures from the Self-Control and Delayed Alternation tasks, respectively. AB indices did not load with those from the reversal tasks …

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The Predictive Use Of Event-Related Potentials In Language Development And The Treatment Of Language Disorders, Dennis L. Molfese, Victoria J. Molfese, K. A. Espy Nov 1999

The Predictive Use Of Event-Related Potentials In Language Development And The Treatment Of Language Disorders, Dennis L. Molfese, Victoria J. Molfese, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Attempts to relate what is currently known regarding the brain's involvement in language processing during the early years of life. The authors focus on the event related potential (ERP) as a means to study the neuroelectrical correlates of language in the brains of infants and children. After reviewing general information concerning ERPs and language, this presentation relates how neonatal ERP measures of phonetic discrimination predict later language and reading abilities.

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Neurobehavior In Preterm Neonates Exposed To Cocaine, Alcohol, And Tobacco, K. A. Espy, M. L. Riese, D. J. Francis Nov 1997

Neurobehavior In Preterm Neonates Exposed To Cocaine, Alcohol, And Tobacco, K. A. Espy, M. L. Riese, D. J. Francis

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Neonatal neurobehavioral development was investigated in a sample of 20 hospitalized, prenatally cocaine-exposed preterm infants and 20 matched non-exposed controls. Prenatal cocaine exposure was related to reductions in attention performance that remained apparent at 36 wks conceptional age. There was no impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on the rate of change in attention proficiency. In utero alcohol exposure was associated with increased rates of age-related change in motor skill. Alcohol-related performance deficits were transient; alcohol-exposed infants reached an equivalent level of motor performance exhibited by the non-exposed infants by 36 wks conceptional age. These findings highlight the importance of considering …

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The Shape School: Assessing Executive Function In Preschool Children, K. A. Espy Nov 1997

The Shape School: Assessing Executive Function In Preschool Children, K. A. Espy

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Age-related changes in executive function were examined on a new task, the Shape School, in 70 preschool children (32-68 months old). The Shape School is a colorful storybook designed to examine inhibition and switching processes in young children. Results confirmed that task efficiency varied significantly with age, with older age groups outperforming younger groups. Furthermore, inhibition efficiency improved significantly between 3 to 4 years of age, whereas switching skills showed developmental improvement from 4 to 5 years of age. These results suggest that the Shape School is sensitive to maturational effects and that performance can be parsed into inhibition and …

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Validity Of Intelligence Test Scores In The Definition Of Learning Disability: A Critical Analysis, D. J. Francis, K. A. Espy, B. P. Rourke, J. M. Fletcher Nov 1991

Validity Of Intelligence Test Scores In The Definition Of Learning Disability: A Critical Analysis, D. J. Francis, K. A. Espy, B. P. Rourke, J. M. Fletcher

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

The relationship of intelligence test performance to learning deficiency is a longstanding issue affecting treatment and research on learning disabled children. Despite many questions concerning the use of intelligence tests for classifying disabled learners, these tests have become entrenched in every form of work with these children (Kaufman, 1979; Sattler, 1988).

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Comparisons Of Cutoff And Regression-Based Definitions Of Reading Disabilities, J. M. Fletcher, K. A. Espy, D. J. Francis, K. C. Davidson, B. P. Rourke, S. A. Shaywitz Nov 1989

Comparisons Of Cutoff And Regression-Based Definitions Of Reading Disabilities, J. M. Fletcher, K. A. Espy, D. J. Francis, K. C. Davidson, B. P. Rourke, S. A. Shaywitz

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory: Faculty Publications

Investigated specificity in reading disability by comparing 2 approaches to defining and selecting children with reading disabilities. One approach defined reading disability according to cutoff scores representing appropriate levels of intelligence and reading deficiency, whereas the other approach adjusted these scores for their intercorrelation through regression procedures. Results reveal differences in which of 1,069 children (aged 9-14 yrs) were identified as reading disabled, depending on the definition used. However, differences in neuropsychological performance between Ss whose reading scores were discrepant or not discrepant with their IQ scores were small and nonspecific for both definitions.

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