Medical Sciences Commons^™

On And Off Retinal Ganglion Cells Differentially Regulate Serotonergic And Gabaergic Activity In The Dorsal Raphe Nucleus, Ting Zhang, Lu Huang, Li Zhang, Minjie Tan, Mingliang Pu, Gary E. Pickard, Kwok -Fai So, Chaoran Ren

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), the major source of serotonergic input to the forebrain, receives excitatory input from the retina that can modulate serotonin levels and depressive-like behavior. In the Mongolian gerbil, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) with alpha-like morphological and Y-like physiological properties innervate the DRN with ON DRN-projecting RGCs out numbering OFF DRN-projecting RGCs. The DRN neurons targeted by ON and OFF RGCs are unknown. To explore retino-raphe anatomical organization, retinal afferents labeled with Cholera toxin B were examined for association with the postsynaptic protein PSD-95. Synaptic associations between retinal afferents and DRN serotonergic and GABAergic neurons were observed. …

Whole Genomic Sequence Analysis Of Bacillus Infantis: Defining The Genetic Blueprint Of Strain Nrrl B-14911, An Emerging Cardiopathogenic Microbe, Chandirasegara Massilamany, Akram Mohammed, John Dustin Loy, Tanya Purvis, Bharathi Krishnan, Rakesh H. Basavalingappa, Christy M. Kelley, Chittibabu Guda, Raúl G. Barletta, Etsuko N. Moriyama, Timothy P.L. Smith, Jay Reddy

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: We recently reported the identification of Bacillus sp. NRRL B-14911 that induces heart autoimmunity by generating cardiac-reactive T cells through molecular mimicry. This marine bacterium was originally isolated from the Gulf of Mexico, but no associations with human diseases were reported. Therefore, to characterize its biological and medical significance, we sought to determine and analyze the complete genome sequence of Bacillus sp. NRRL B-14911.

Results: Based on the phylogenetic analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, sequence analysis of the 16S-23S rDNA intergenic transcribed spacers, phenotypic microarray, and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-offlight mass spectrometry, we propose that this …

Host Cell Functions In Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Replication, Phat X. Dinh, Anshuman Das, Asit K. Pattnaik

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), the prototypic rhabdovirus, has been used as an excellent paradigm for understanding the mechanisms of virus replication, pathogenesis, host response to virus infection and also for myriads of studies on cellular and molecular biology. Biochemical studies as well as high-throughput genomics, proteomics, and chemical approaches have revealed a plethora of cellular factors and pathways that regulate replication of VSV. These factors include those that support virus replication and also those that restrict its replication. This chapter discusses the role(s) of many of these host cell factors and pathways involved in VSV replication. Although mechanistic understanding of …

Erratum To: Association Of Autophagy In The Cell Death Mediated By Dihydrotestosterone In Autoreactive T Cells Independent Of Antigenic Stimulation, Ting Jia, Anandhan Annadurai, Chandirasegara Massilamany, Rajkumar A. Rajasekaran, Rodrigo Franco, Jay Reddy

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

No abstract provided.

New Tools To Convert Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes To A Self-Excising Design And Their Application To A Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infectious Clone, Alexsia L. Richards, Patricia J. Sollars, Gregory A. Smith

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Infectious clones are fundamental tools for the study of many viruses, allowing for efficient mutagenesis and reproducible production of genetically-defined strains. For the large dsDNA genomes of the herpesviridae, bacterial artificial chromosomes have become the cloning vector of choice due to their capacity to house full-length herpesvirus genomes as single contiguous inserts. Furthermore, while maintained as plasmids in Escherichia coli, the clones can be mutated using robust prokaryotic recombination systems. An important consideration in the design of these clones is the means by which the vector backbone is removed from the virus genome upon delivery into mammalian cells. …

Resolving Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Subtypes From Persistently Infected U.S. Beef Calves With Complete Genome Sequence, Aspen M. Workman, Michael P. Heaton, Gregory P. Harhay, Timothy P.L. Smith, Dale M. Grotelueschen, David Sjeklocha, Bruce Brodersen, Jessica L. Petersen, Carol G. Chitko-Mckown

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is classified into 2 genotypes, BVDV-1 and BVDV-2, each of which contains distinct subtypes with genetic and antigenic variation. To effectively control BVDV by vaccination, it is important to know which subtypes of the virus are circulating and how their prevalence is changing over time. Accordingly, the purpose of our study was to estimate the current prevalence and diversity of BVDV subtypes from persistently infected (PI) beef calves in the central United States. Phylogenetic analysis of the 5′-UTR (5′ untranslated region) for 119 virus strains revealed that a majority (82%) belonged to genotype 1b, and …

Maporal Hantavirus Causes Mild Pathology In Deer Mice (Peromyscus Maniculatus), Amanda Mcguire, Kaitlyn Miedema, Joseph R. Fauver, Amber Rico, Tawfik Aboellail, Sandra L. Quackenbush, Ann Hawkinson, Tony Schountz

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Rodent-borne hantaviruses can cause two human diseases with many pathological similarities: hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in the western hemisphere and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in the eastern hemisphere. Each virus is hosted by specific reservoir species without conspicuous disease. HCPS-causing hantaviruses require animal biosafety level-4 (ABSL-4) containment, which substantially limits experimental research of interactions between the viruses and their reservoir hosts. Maporal virus (MAPV) is a South American hantavirus not known to cause disease in humans, thus it can be manipulated under ABSL-3 conditions. The aim of this study was to develop an ABSL-3 hantavirus infection model using the …

The Mechanistic Basis Of Hemoglobin Adaptation In The High-Flying Barheaded Goose: Insights From Ancestral Protein Resurrection, Chandrasekhar Natarajan, Amit Kumar, Hideaki Moriyama, Roy E. Weber, Angela Fago, Jay F. Storz

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The bar-headed goose (‘BHG’, Anser indicus) is renowned for its trans-Himalayan migratory flights, and the elevated hemoglobin (Hb)-O2 affinity of this species is thought to make a key contribution to its capacity for powered flight at elevations of ~9000 m. Here we revisit the molecular basis of this text-book example of biochemical adaptation. Previous hypotheses about the molecular basis of the evolved increase in Hb-O2 affinity were tested by engineering BHGspecific mutations into recombinant human Hb. This approach can provide important insights, but one problem with such ‘horizontal’ comparisons – swapping residues between proteins of contemporary species – is that …

Localization Of Cd8 T Cell Epitope Within Cardiac Myosin Heavy Chain-Α334-352 That Induces Autoimmune Myocarditis In A/J Mice, Chandirasegara Massilamany, Arunakumar Gangaplara, Rakesh H. Basavalingappa, Rajkumar A. Rajasekaran, Vahid Khalilzad-Sharghi, Zhongji Han, Shadi F. Othman, David Steffen, Jay Reddy

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background—Cardiac myosin heavy chain-α (Myhc), an intracellular protein expressed in the cardiomyocytes, has been identified as a major autoantigen in cardiac autoimmunity. In our studies with Myhc_334-352-induced experimental autoimmune myocarditis in A/J mice (H-2a), we discovered that Myhc_334-352, supposedly a CD4 T cell epitope, also induced antigen-specific CD8 T cells that transfer disease to naïve animals.

Methods and Results—In our efforts to identify the CD8 T cell determinants, we localized Myhc_338-348 within the full length-Myhc_334-352, leading to four key findings. (1) By acting as a dual epitope, Myhc_338-348 induces both …

Visualizing Herpesvirus Procapsids In Living Cells, Oana Maier, Patricia J. Sollars, Gary E. Pickard, Gregory A. Smith

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

A complete understanding of herpesvirus morphogenesis requires studies of capsid assembly dynamics in living cells. Although fluorescent tags fused to the VP26 and pUL25 capsid proteins are available, neither of these components is present on the initial capsid assembly, the procapsid. To make procapsids accessible to live-cell imaging, we made a series of recombinant pseudorabies viruses that encoded green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused in frame to the internal capsid scaffold and maturation protease. One recombinant, a GFP-VP24 fusion, maintained wild-type propagation kinetics in vitro and approximated wild-type virulence in vivo. The fusion also proved to be well tolerated in …

Note On Ehrlichia Chaffeensis, Ehrlichia Ewingii, And “Borrelia Lonestari” Infection In Lone Star Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae), Nebraska, Usa, Amanda Maegli, J. Dustin Loy, Roberto Cortinas

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.) (Acari: Ixodidae), is established in southeastern Nebraska, yet the prevalence of tick-associated microorganisms is not known. An initial PCR-based analysis for Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Ehrlichia ewingii, and Borrelia infection in host-seeking adult ticks collected in southeast Nebraska was conducted. A total of 251 adult ticks collected in six sites in southeast Nebraska were tested. E. chaffeensis, E. ewingii, and Borrelia spp. were present, and the prevalence of each was approximately 1.6%. This study demonstrates that Ehrlichia spp. are present in Nebraska lone star tick populations.

Expression And Distribution Of Thiol-Regulating Enzyme Glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2) In Porcine Ocular Tissues, Bijaya Upadhyaya, Xiaoli Tian, Hongli Wu, Marjorie F. Lou

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Glutaredoxin2 (Grx2) is a mitochondrial isozyme of the cytosolic glutaredoxin1 (thioltransferase or TTase). Both belong to the large oxidoreductase family and play an important role in maintaining thiol/disulfide redox homeostasis in the cells. Grx2 is recently found in the lens where its activities of disulfide reductase and peroxidase, similar to TTase, can protect the lens against oxidative stress. Since other eye tissues are also highly sensitive to oxidative stress, and TTase’s distribution in the eye is known, we focused on this study by investigating the Grx2 distribution in the ocular tissues in comparison to the lens. Fresh porcine eyes were …

Analysis Of Mycobacterium Avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Mutant Libraries Reveals Loci-Dependent Transposition Biases And Strategies For Novel Mutant Discovery, Govardhan Rathnaiah, John Bannantine, Darrell O. Bayles, Denise K. Zinniel, Judith R. Stabel, Yrjö T. Gröhn, Raúl G. Barletta

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), the aetiological agent of Johne’s disease, is one of the most important bacterial pathogens in ruminants. A thorough understanding of MAP pathogenesis is needed to develop new vaccines and diagnostic tests. The generation of comprehensive random transposon mutant libraries is a fundamental genetic technology to determine the role of genes in physiology and pathogenesis. In this study, whole MAP genome analysis compared the insertion sites for the mycobacterial transposon Tn5367 derived from the Mycobacterium smegmatis insertion sequence IS1096 and the mariner transposon MycoMarT7 carrying the Himar1 transposase. We determined that only MycoMarT7 provides …

Mosquito Host Choices On Livestock Amplifiers Of Rift Valley Fever Virus In Kenya, David P. Tchouassi, Robinson O. Okiro, Rosemary Sang, Lee W. Cohnstaedt, D. Scott Mcvey, Baldwyn Torto

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Animal hosts may vary in their attraction and acceptability as components of the host location process for assessing preference, and biting rates of vectors and risk of exposure to pathogens. However, these parameters remain poorly understood for mosquito vectors of the Rift Valley fever (RVF), an arboviral disease, and for a community of mosquitoes.

Methods: Using three known livestock amplifiers of RVF virus including sheep, goat and cattle as bait in enclosure traps, we investigated the host-feeding patterns for a community of mosquitoes in Naivasha, an endemic area of Rift Valley fever (RVF), in a longitudinal study for six …

The Development Of A Platform For Expression And Purification Of The Mammalian Transmembrane Transporter Abca4, Amaryllis Ortiz

Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Theses and Dissertations

Purpose- ABCA4 is an ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) protein localized at cone and rod photoreceptor outer segments of the retina. Though mutations in ABCA4 have been found to cause a broad spectrum of disorders, ABCA4's high molecular weight (~210 kDa) and biochemical transmembrane properties have made ABCA4 functional studies unsuccessful. Identifying how ABCA4 functions might have significant clinical impact and open unanticipated avenues for therapeutic interventions. Thus, the objective of this study was to develop a new expression system able to produce the full-length, correctly folded and fully functional ABCA4 protein.

Methods- the ABCA4 gene was amplified from the PCMV6-ABCA4 …

Problem Solving Skill And Obesity In Children, Caitlin R. Spano

The Eleanor Mann School of Nursing Undergraduate Honors Theses

Abstract:

Introduction: Childhood obesity is a problem that leads to many serious health effects including early maturation, decreased quality of life and increased risk for cardiovascular disease. In 2012, over one third of children were considered obese (Childhood Obesity Facts 2015). Efforts have been made to reduce this number but they have not been fully successful (Nutrition Standards for School Meals 2015, Prevalence of Childhood obesity in the United States 2011-2012 2015). What other factors are causing kids to choose foods that lead to weight gain.

Literature Review: In research regarding psychological motivations of overeating, there has been a correlation …

Role Of Stat3 In Human Nk Cell Functions, Prasad V. Phatarpekar

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Natural Killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes, which play a critical role in the immune response against malignant cells and microbial infections. NK cells are equipped with activating receptors, which upon detecting ligands expressed on stressed cells induce cytolytic activity of NK cells. Stimulation of NK cell proliferation and priming of NK cytolytic capability are accomplished by cytokines, which mediate their signals mainly through JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Previously, we found that K562 cells genetically modified to express membrane bound IL-21 (mbIL-21), which predominantly activates STAT3, induce robust expansion and activation of human NK cells. Further investigations revealed role of STAT3 …

The Neurobiology Of Circadian Rhythms, Patricia J. Sollars, Gary E. Pickard

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Daily rhythms in nature, such as the opening and closing of flowers or our patterns of sleep and wakefulness and their association with the perpetual alteration of night and day, were recognized in antiquity although their origins were not questioned until the eighteenth century. The French Astronomer Jean-Jacques d’Ortous de Mairan conducted an investigation into whether the leaves of the Mimosa plant opened in response to light.¹ While de Mairan’s experiments were the first to question the origin of such daily rhythms, Augustin Pyramus de Candolle is credited with the first suggestion that they arose through an internal timekeeping …

A Synthetic Porcine Reproductive And Respiratory Syndrome Virus Strain Confers Unprecedented Levels Of Heterologous Protection, Hiep Vu, Fangrui Ma, William W. Laegreid, Asit K. Pattnaik, David Steffen, Alan R. Doster, Fernando Osorio

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Current vaccines do not provide sufficient levels of protection against divergent porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) strains circulating in the field, mainly due to the substantial variation of the viral genome. We describe here a novel approach to generate a PRRSV vaccine candidate that could confer unprecedented levels of heterologous protection against divergent PRRSV isolates. By using a set of 59 nonredundant, full-genome sequences of type 2 PRRSVs, a consensus genome (designated PRRSV-CON) was generated by aligning these 59 PRRSV full-genome sequences, followed by selecting the most common nucleotide found at each position of the alignment. Next, the …

Dynamic Ubiquitination Drives Herpesvirus Neuroinvasion, Nicholas J. Huffmaster, Patricia J. Sollars, Alexsia L. Richards, Gary E. Pickard, Gregory A. Smith

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Neuroinvasive herpesviruses display a remarkable propensity to enter the nervous system of healthy individuals in the absence of obvious trauma at the site of inoculation. We document a repurposing of cellular ubiquitin during infection to switch the virus between two invasive states. The states act sequentially to defeat consecutive host barriers of the peripheral nervous system and together promote the potent neuroinvasive phenotype. The first state directs virus access to nerve endings in peripheral tissue, whereas the second delivers virus particles within nerve fibers to the neural ganglia. Mutant viruses locked in either state remain competent to overcome the corresponding …

Real-Time Detection Of Breast Cancer Cells Using Peptidefunctionalized Microcantilever Arrays, Hashem Etayash, Keren Jiang, Sarfuddin Azmi, Thomas Thundat, Kamaljit Kaur

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Ligand-directed targeting and capturing of cancer cells is a new approach for detecting circulating tumor cells (CTCs). Ligands such as antibodies have been successfully used for capturing cancer cells and an antibody based system (CellSearch®) is currently used clinically to enumerate CTCs. Here we report the use of a peptide moiety in conjunction with a microcantilever array system to selectively detect CTCs resulting from cancer, specifically breast cancer. A sensing microcantilever, functionalized with a breast cancer specific peptide 18-4 (WxEAAYQrFL), showed significant deflection on cancer cell (MCF7 and MDA-MB-231) binding compared to when exposed to noncancerous (MCF10A and HUVEC) cells. …

Trim21 Regulates Nmi-Ifi35 Complex-Mediated Inhibition Of Innate Antiviral Response, Anshuman Das, Phat X. Dinh, Asit K. Pattnaik

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

In this study, using an immunoprecipitation coupled with mass spectrometry approach, we have identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase Trim21 as an interacting partner of IFI35 and Nmi. We found that this interaction leads to K63-linked ubiquitination on K22 residue of Nmi, but not IFI35. Using domain deletion analysis, we found that the interaction is mediated via the coiled-coil domain of Nmi and the carboxyl-terminal SPRY domain of Trim21. Furthermore, we show that depletion of Trim21 leads to significantly reduced interaction of Nmi with IFI35, which results in the abrogation of the negative regulatory function of the Nmi-IFI35 complex on innate …

Viewing The Extracellular Matrix: An Imaging Method For Tissue Engineering, Michael Drakopoulos, Sarah Calve

The Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship (SURF) Symposium

The field of regenerative medicine seeks to create replacement tissues and organs, both to repair deficiencies in biological function and to treat structural damage caused by injury. Scaffoldings mimicking extracellular matrix (ECM), the structure to which cells attach to form tissues, have been developed from synthetic polymers and also been prepared by decellularizing adult tissue. However, the structure of ECM undergoes significant remodeling during natural tissue repair, suggesting that ECM-replacement constructs that mirror developing tissues may promote better regeneration than those modeled on adult tissues. This work investigated the effectiveness of a method of viewing the extracellular matrix of developing …

Numerical Simulation Of Terahertz Wave Interaction With Breast Cancer Tumor Tissue Sections, Abayomi Omotola Omolewu

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

This thesis presents numerical simulation of terahertz (THz) wave interaction with breast cancer tumor tissue sections. The obtained results are expressed in THz images of heterogeneous material that mimics the excised breast cancer tissue sections. The finite-element software package ANSYS High Frequency Structural Simulator (HFSS) was used in this work. HFSS is a full wave frequency domain three-dimensional (3D) electromagnetic simulation package. In this work, four breast cancer tissue models based on pathology images were simulated and images of the models were obtained at 1 THz. An incident Gaussian beam was raster scanned over tissue model configurations and the reflected …

Effect Of Sirna Pre-Exposure On Subsequent Response To Sirna Therapy, Hamidreza Montazeri Aliabadi, Parvin Mahdipoor, Cezary Kucharski, Nicole Chan, Hasan Uludag

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

PURPOSE. An alternative cancer therapy based on RNA interference (RNAi) has shown considerable promise but the possibility of resistance development is not known. This study explored the possibility of therapeutic resistance against siRNA nanoparticles in human cancer cells. METHODS. Two approaches to siRNA treatment were undertaken using lipid-modified polyethylenimines, a single high concentration (shock) and repeated increasing concentrations (gradual). The targets were Mcl-1, RPS6KA5 and KSP in MDA-MB-435 cells. RESULTS. There was no evidence of resistance development in shock-treated cells, while the decrease in mRNA levels of targeted proteins was not as robust in naïve cells in gradual treatment. However, …

Cationic Cell-Penetrating Peptides Are Potent Furin Inhibitors, Bruno Ramos-Molina, Adam N. Lick, Amir Nasrolahi Shirazi, Donghoon Oh, Rakesh Tiwari, Naglaa Salem El-Sayed, Keykavous Parang, Iris Lindberg

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Cationic cell-penetrating peptides have been widely used to enhance the intracellular delivery of various types of cargoes, such as drugs and proteins. These reagents are chemically similar to the multi-basic peptides that are known to be potent proprotein convertase inhibitors. Here, we report that both HIV-1 TAT47-57 peptide and the Chariot reagent are micromolar inhibitors of furin activity in vitro. In agreement, HIV-1 TAT47-57 reduced HT1080 cell migration, thought to be mediated by proprotein convertases, by 25%. In addition, cyclic polyarginine peptides containing hydrophobic moieties which have been previously used as transfection reagents also exhibited potent furin inhibition in vitro …

Exploring Egr-1 As A Master Regulator Of Prostate Field Cancerization, Kristin Gabriel, Marco Bisoffi

Student Scholar Symposium Abstracts and Posters

Field cancerization denotes the presence of molecular aberrations (genetic, epigenetic, biochemical) in structurally intact cells residing in histologically normal tissues adjacent to tumors. Markers of field cancerization in prostate tissues have the potential to improve the clinical management of this malignancy through their potential to act as indicators of early disease and to serve as molecular targets for early intervention. However, for this, a detailed understanding of the functional pathways underlying field cancerization is necessary. We have recently identified four protein markers of prostate field cancerization, i.e. the key transcription factor early growth response 1 (EGR-1), the lipogenic enzyme fatty …

Prostate Field Cancerization – Thinking Outside The Tumor, Dor Shoshan

Student Scholar Symposium Abstracts and Posters

Analysis of tumor adjacent tissue is assumed to reveal a temporal record of molecular pathways that define oncogenesis. The present study determines expression of the key transcription factor and potential marker of field cancerization early growth response 1 (EGR-1) in human prostate tissues derived from prostatectomies and biopsies. Expression was detected using immunofluorescence and quantified using ImageJ software. Accordingly, EGR-1 expression was similar in cancerous and in histologically normal adjacent tissues from prostatectomy and biopsy specimens. EGR-1 could be exploited as pre-surgical disease indicator in false negative biopsies, identify areas of repeat biopsy, and add molecular information to surgical margins.

Effect Of Curcumin Analog Ca27 On Androgen Receptor Translocation In Prostate Cancer Cells, Lijah Vann Gardner

Student Scholar Symposium Abstracts and Posters

The androgen receptor (AR) plays an essential role in promoting the development and progression of metastatic prostate cancer and represents an important molecular target for therapeutic intervention. We have recently described a series of synthetic analogs of the natural product diferuloylmethane (curcumin), some of which induce the down-regulation of AR expression in prostate cancer cells by an as yet largely unknown mechanism of action. While such analogs may in the long term be lead structures for the development of therapeutic drugs, we hypothesize here that they represent ideal molecular probes to identify the mechanism(s) of action for AR down-regulation. We …

Structural And Functional Interactions Between Bro1 Domain Of Human Alix Protein And Nucleocapsid Packaging Rna Complex From Hiv, Scott Gross

Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Theses and Dissertations

A virus is only as powerful as its ability to spread. Enveloped retroviruses, namely HIV-1, use exocytosis pathways that normal host cells use to release particles from the plasma membrane. The main pathways of interest in this study are the Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) and adjacent ALIX pathways. The ESCRT pathway is especially important for degradation of receptor/cargo complexes that form Multi-Vesicular Bodies (MVBs). Currently, there is no known therapy that targets this endosomal pathway, which would prevent the spread of the virus to other cells. The virus has adapted to jump from pathway to pathway when …