Medical Education Commons^™

Effects Of Low-Intensity Fatigue On Motor Unit Firing Properties During Maximal Voluntary Isometric Contractions, Lyric Richardson, Amy Riera, Emma Bozarth, Micheal Luera

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Rehabilitation from injuries impairing the neuromuscular system is often difficult to quantify due to task specificity of the affected or immobilized limb or limbs. Often, exercise regimens with clinical practitioners are designed to progress motor performance to a capacity that reflects muscle force production to pre-injury capacity. Modulation of force production from these tasks are regulated from various mechanism in the central and peripheral nervous system. The neural activation of these systems can be recorded as electrical impulses using several non-invasive techniques. Recently, the ability to examine these during fatiguing exercise has provided further insight into activation patterns and firing …

Associations Of Changes In Body Composition And Athletic Performance In Collegiate American Football Players, Jake Boykin, Dale Kieth, Christine Harrison, Javier A. Zaragoza, Jessica Prather, Matthias Tinnin, Lemuel W. Taylor Iv, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Football practitioners ubiquitously employ offseason resistance training to improve on-field performance. Early offseason training is frequently designed to emphasize accretion of lean and total body mass. While this is a main objective of sport-specific conditioning, there are few investigations comparing correlated changes in body composition, maximal strength, and football-specific performance tests after an early-offseason training program. PURPOSE: The purpose of this analysis was to quantify the relationship between changes in athletic performance and body composition in collegiate American football players. METHODS: Before and after a 7-week offseason training program, body composition and athletic performance were assessed in NCAA Division III …

Relationship Between Changes In Upper Body Fat-Free Mass And Bench Press Performance In American Football Players, Dale S. Keith, Jake R. Boykin, Christine M. Harrison, Javier A. Zaragoza, Jessica Prather, Matthias Tinnin, Lem W. Taylor, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Horizontal pushing strength and strength endurance are relevant attributes for blocking and block shedding in American football. Since most positions in American football require the ability to either block or shed a block, and since bench press repetitions to failure (RTF) with 225 pounds is a component of the NFL draft combine, improving horizontal pushing strength and strength endurance have been key areas of emphasis for strength and conditioning coaches working with these athletes. PURPOSE: The purpose of this analysis was to quantify the relationship between changes in upper body fat-free mass (FFM) and metrics of bench press performance …

Cardiorespiratory Coordination Among Intermediate And Novice Female Collegiate Rowers, Zoey Jackson, Michelle Etchebaster, Paula Gutiérrez, Gemma Hernández, Sergi G. Retortillo, Zacharias Papadakis

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Elite rowers present high levels of cardiorespiratory performance. Rowers’ on-water performance can be predicted by a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and related measured parameters such as maximum oxygen uptake test (VO2max), ventilation (VE), heart rate (HR), expired fraction of oxygen (FeO2) and carbon dioxide (FeCO2). However, such testing provides little information about the non-linear dynamic interactions during rowing and the qualitative synergetic reconfigurations between cardiovascular and respiratory systems to adjust to the individual rowing performance. Cardiorespiratory coordination (CRC) has been proposed as a method to measure the co-variation among cardiorespiratory variables during a CPET. PURPOSE: To measure and compare …

Exploring Physical Fitness Profile Of College Students Through Principal Component Analysis: A Case Study, Alejandra Rincon Cortes, Melissa Dorvily, Zoey Jackson, Michelle Etchebaster, Zacharias Papadakis

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Universities offer lifetime physical fitness (PF) courses and organize health fairs to keep their students physically fit. Despite these efforts, only 49.9% of US students meeting the National Guidelines for physical activity, reporting low fitness levels, as evaluated by the respective scores of the five fitness components. Fitness evaluation though is a time-consuming process and students’ time constrains have been postulated as reasons for lack of participation, motivation, and involvement. PURPOSE: Since time availability may influence students’ participation in a battery of fitness testing for evaluating their PF levels, this study aimed through principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce the …

Assessment Of Youth Athlete Body Composition Using Bioimpedance Techniques As Compared To A Three-Compartment Model, Jacob J. Green, Abby Ambrosius, Christopher Dodge, Brandon Merfeld, Chinguun Khurelbaatar, Makenna Carpenter, Patrick Harty, Christian Rodriguez, Madelin Siedler, Matthew Stratton, Dale Keith, Jake Boykin, Andrew R. Jagim, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Body composition is believed to contribute to success in many sports. For this reason, assessment of body composition with various devices is commonly performed. The agreement between devices warrants exploration, particularly in groups with limited data, such as youth athletes. PURPOSE: To determine the agreement between a 3-compartment model (3C) and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) devices for assessing body composition in youth athletes. METHODS: The body composition of 90 youth athletes was evaluated (51 F, 39 M; age: 18.2±2.4 y; body mass: 69.0±12.5 kg; height: 172.0±9.9 cm; BMI: 23.2±3.2 kg/m², BF%: 19.7±6.9%). 3C values were produced …

Is Our Student Body Fit? A Comparison Of Current Fitness Levels To Normative Data, Melissa Dorvily, Michelle Etchebaster, Zoey Jackson, Zacharias Papadakis

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Physical Activity (PA) among university students yields 40-50% participation and this statistic continues to make a steady decline. This has caused a widespread call to action for universities to provide resources and education to encourage students to increase physical activity. Prior to and during COVID-19 pandemic our student body reported decreased levels of PA. Amid the return to an in-person student life, many students have reported increased challenges in returning to fitness related activities. In tandem with our Exercise is Medicine-On Campus (EIM-OC) initiative, an interactive health fair open to the entire body of 4,495 students was held to address …

Exergame Versus Traditional Cycling: A Comparison Of Psychological Factors, Mckay Bloxham, Casi Helbig

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Previous research has noted that increased enjoyment levels endorsed the involvement in long-term exercise persistence. PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to compare enjoyment levels and perceived time of the Spinner NXT, a stationary bike commonly found in cycling classes, and the TACX trainer, a stationary bike which allows users to immerse themselves in any location in the world and participate in competitions if desired. METHODS: Sample size consisted of 30 Texas Lutheran University students. Each participant was assigned a number to protect their identity and was randomly assigned which bicycle they would start with. Participant was …

Comparison Of Laboratory-Grade And Consumer-Grade Hand-To-Foot Bioelectrical Impedance Analyzers For Body Composition Estimation, Gabrielle C. Dehaven, Madelin R. Siedler, Christian Rodriguez, Sarah White, Abegale D. Williams, Patrick S. Harty, Matthew T. Stratton, Dale Keith, Jacob Green, Jake Boykin, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a simple and effective technique to estimate body composition, including body fat percentage (BFP). While these analyzers are a popular method of describing a person’s body composition, laboratory-grade devices are expensive and inaccessible to most people. As a result, they may be an unrealistic method for consumers to use. However, consumer-grade devices are increasingly available. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare laboratory-grade and consumer-grade bioelectrical impedance analyzers. METHODS: Seventy-five adults (40 F, 35 M) were evaluated using a laboratory-grade, hand-to-foot, multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analyzer (BIA_LAB; Seca mBCA 515) …

Validity Of Hand-To-Foot And Foot-To-Foot Consumer Bioimpedance Analyzers: A Four-Compartment Model Comparison, Sarah J. White, Madelin R. Siedler, Christian Rodriguez, Abegale D. Williams, Gabrielle Dehaven, Patrick S. Harty, Matthew T. Stratton, Dale Keith, Jacob Green, Jake Boykin, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Body fat percentage (BF%) is a useful variable for predicting disease risk and determining overall fitness. Consumer-grade bioimpedance analyzers seek to provide accurate body composition data while remaining affordable and accessible. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare body fat percentages obtained from hand-to-foot and foot-to-foot consumer bioimpedance analyzers to a gold standard 4-compartment (4C) model. METHODS: Seventy-five adults (40 F, 35 M; age: 27.2 ± 7.3 y; height: 168.1 ± 8.8 cm; BM: 72.1 ± 16.6 kg; 4C model BF%: 25.0 ± 9.2%) were evaluated by a 4C model, a consumer-grade hand-to-foot bioimpedance analyzer (BIA-HF; …

Army Combat Fitness Test Performance By Sex In Rotc Cadets, Kevin Lee Withrow, J. Jay Dawes, Robin (Rob) Marc Orr, Robert G. Lockie

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The U.S. Department of Defense recently opened all combat jobs to women. The Army Combat Fitness Test (ACFT) is the U.S. Army’s new assessment for measuring a soldier’s ability to execute combat-related tasks. However, issues have been raised at a national level relative to the impacts of the ACFT on female personnel. As the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) is the initial entry point for many future Army officers, it is important to analyze how male and female cadets compare in their physical abilities. PURPOSE: To investigate the between-sex differences in ACFT performance in cadets from one program. METHODS …

Lifting In An Alternate Reality: The Application Of Action Observation Within Virtual Reality And Weightlifting., Michael Weise, Nikko Cando, Alex Krause, Kim Hernandez, Rabbani Nzeza, Allyssa Alcasabas, Jake Hinkel-Lipsker

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Action observation (AO), where a learner watches a model perform a skill, has long been shown to facilitate motor learning of a variety of skills. There is great interest in learning ways to optimize the AO experience in order to maximize motor learning. In recent years, virtual reality (VR) technology has advanced considerably, where high-fidelity environments can facilitate a fully immersive experience. As such, the three-dimensional (3D) VR experience could allow for improved learning through AO over more traditional forms (e.g., watching a computer screen). PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to determine how well people learn a …

My Brain Hurts: A Focus On Somatosensory Complaints In Traumatic Brain Injury Patients Assessed By Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory, Christine Walker, Jason Bailie, Rosemay Remigio-Baker, Ida Babakhanyan

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

PURPOSE: Somatosensory symptoms are common complaints from patients following a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), but are not specific to TBI diagnosis. This study investigated the prevalence of somatosensory symptoms in TBI patients, evaluated if symptoms severity was associated with TBI severity, and assessed the relationship of somatosensory complaints to psychological complaints commonly associated with depression and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). METHODS: Somatic symptoms following traumatic brain injury (TBI) were assessed using 7 of the 22 items from the Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory (NSI) which included headache, nausea, vision problems/blurriness, body numbness/tingling, taste/smell changes, light sensitivity, and noise sensitivity. …

High School Strength And Conditioning: A Narrative Review Of The Literature, Alexander Wakely, Robert G. Lockie

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Many high school athletes will complete strength and conditioning programs as part of their sports participation. The programs can vary in quality, and there is limited research specifically investigating programs at this level. PURPOSE: To review current literature specific to strength and conditioning training programs for high school student-athletes and calculate magnitude of performance changes. METHODS: Studies were searched for using the CSUF Pollack Library database. Search terms included “high school strength and conditioning” and “high school training programs”. Following this process, 5 studies were deemed appropriate for this narrative review. Performance changes from pre- to post-test for the strength …

Gender Differences In Physical Activity Level By Domain, Natasha Vinluan, Zachary Zenko

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Engaging in regular physical activity and exercise has been demonstrated to increase life expectancy, improve mental health, and prevent or manage noncommunicable diseases. Although the health benefits are well known, estimates suggest that the majority of women and men do not obtain the recommended amounts of physical activity per week. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to assess how physical activity levels differed by domain (i.e., domestic/household, transportation-related, occupational, leisure-time) between genders. This information can be useful for tailoring future interventions to promote activity. METHODS: After obtaining ethical approval, participants (79 men, 35 women; mean age: 36 …

Developing A Predictive Model For Vo2max In Middle-Distance Track And Field Athletes, Nicole Vargas, Patricia Vanoosbree, Kristyne Wiegand

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Purpose: Aerobic capacity is an indicator of an athlete’s endurance and a key predictor of performance. The greater the aerobic capacity, the more oxygen available for working muscles, leading to delays in lactate buildup, thus increasing the potential for successful performance. Studies have investigated non-exercise and/or submaximal exercise measures to predict aerobic capacity, but few have analyzed the combination of maximal exercise and non-exercise measures in Division-3 runners. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study is to determine the predictive ability of heart rate (HR_max), ventilation (VE), respiratory quotient (RQ), and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) on VO …

Understanding And Communicating Physical Activity Guidelines: Creating A Training Video For Health Care Providers, Jafrā D. Thomas, Bethany C. Love, Caroline N. Smith

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Like Das et al.’s study (2018, TJACSM), studies over the last decade or so have shown that many health care providers have low knowledge of peer-reviewed physical activity guidelines (PAGs, e.g., Barton et al., 2021, Physical Therapy in Sport; Douglas et al., 2006, BMC Public Health). One remedy may be educational videos. PURPOSE: This presentation details a process to create a short, interactive, educational video to train health care providers in how to advise clients in a manner consistent with PAGs. METHODS: Over a four-month period (January to April of 2021), the second author developed …

Phase Angle Is Associated With Muscular Fitness In Breast Cancer Survivors, Trevor Short, Michelle Pits, Paulette Yamada, Cheri Teranishi-Hashimoto

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Phase angle (PhA) has emerged as a prognostic indicator of survival and quality of life (QOL) in cancer patients. Identifying measures of physical fitness that correlate with PhA can provide guidance towards optimizing cancer rehabilitation programs. PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between PhA and physical fitness (muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, flexibility, and body composition) in breast cancer survivors. METHODS: Seventy female breast cancer survivors (61 ± 9 years, PhA 4.57 ± 0.51) were referred to the rehabilitation clinic by their oncologist. Participants completed assessments for muscular strength (predicted 1-repetition maximum of incline bench press, seated cable row, latissimus …

Reverting To A Healthier Diet Or Employing An Aerobic Exercise Regime Independently Restore Muscle Fiber Phenotype Disturbed By High-Fat Diet In Muscle Of Mice, Nathan Serrano, Harkaran S. Sodhi, Kailin Johnsson, Laurel B. Winslow, Layla Al-Nakkash, Christos S. Katsanos

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Obesity affects roughly 42% of the US population. High fat/high sugar diets (HFHS) often referred to as “western diet” contributes to this prevalence. Diet-induced obesity results in impaired metabolic responses and associated disease states (i.e., Type 2 Diabetes). Metabolic impairments in diet-induced obesity are a result of changes in muscle metabolism, and changes in muscle fiber phenotype, which is determined by the isoform-content of the protein myosin heavy chain (MHC). Fast muscle fiber phenotype (i.e. type IIb in mice) is characterized by lower capacity for utilization of lipids, implicated in the pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes. Regular exercise shifts MHC …

Evaluating The Validity Of The Salatto-Love And Care Of Nature Direct Indication Scale Against The Love And Care Of Nature Scale During Rest And After Self-Paced Hiking, Robert W. Salatto, Dustin W. Davis, Elias M. Malek, Charli Aguilar, Jeff Montes, Nathaniel Bodell, Jacob W. Manning, Mark Debeliso Phd, James Navalta

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

There are several scales used to measure one’s connectedness to or love of nature. Amongst these scales is The Love and Care of Nature Scale (LCN), which has been used across several disciplines in research. While the LCN is a valid and reliable scale, completing the 15-question scale may be time consuming and difficult during field research. PURPOSE: The purpose of the current investigation was to establish a fast, easy-to-administer, and easy-to-understand visual analog scale that is valid for evaluating participants’ connectedness to or love of nature. METHODS:Nineteen participants met on two consecutive days at Thunderbird Gardens Trailhead in …

Body Composition And Fitness Characteristics From Structural Firefighters In A Health And Wellness Program: Differences According To Injury Status And Location, Tomas J. Ruvalcaba, Daniel Higuera, Robin (Rob) Marc Orr, J. Jay Dawes, Kristina A. Ross, Robert G. Lockie

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Structural firefighting can put firefighters at an elevated risk for injury. Numerous health and fitness characteristics (body composition, flexibility, muscular strength and endurance, aerobic capacity) can influence the performance of fireground operations, and could help prevent injury in firefighters. PURPOSE: To analyze the differences in health and fitness between healthy firefighters, and firefighters who reported a current upper-body, lower-body, or back injury. METHODS: Archival data from structural firefighters in a health and wellness program was investigated (258 males; 12 females). Body composition data included height; body mass; body mass index (BMI); body fat percentage; fat and lean body mass; waist …

College Students’ Perceived Stress In Relation To Physical Activity Behaviors During The Covid-19 Pandemic, Holli Rosas, Andrea Hughes, Sarah L. Dunn Ph.D.

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

College students may experience heightened stress during a global pandemic. It is well known that psychological distress during times of uncertainty and sedentary behaviors may lead to adverse health outcomes such as morbidity and mortality. Physical activity (PA) has been shown to positively mediate distress and other mental health outcomes. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to examine college students’ perceived stress levels and PA behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic and remote learning. METHODS: An Institutional Review Board approved online Qualtrics survey was used to collect data from eighty-four enrolled college students (mean age 24.4±5.79 years, 57.6% female) in …

Obstacle Negotiation Gaze Strategies Of The Physically Fatigued, Belle P. Ponce De Leon, Makena Savola, Sedona Boren, Andrew Fishman, Sarika Varma, Jacob W. Hinkel-Lipsker

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

INTRODUCTION: Proper obstacle negotiation while in a fatigued state is a safety concern for first responders, firefighters and other primary relief personnel in their high-risk line of work. During locomotion the central gaze is focused beyond the obstacle to plan future steps while the peripheral vision spatially tracks the obstacle. Previous work indicates that following intense exercise people experience a narrowed peripheral visual field, making them more reliant on central gaze. Thus, it is possible that when physically-fatigued people become more reliant on central gaze to perceive obstacles, leaving them unable to plan future steps as effectively.

PURPOSE: This study …

Anthropometric Predictors Of Arterial Stiffness When Adjusting For Fitness In College-Aged Adults, Riley Morton, Kyli Alvarez, Estephania Campa, Malia Nowlen, Zachary Zeigler

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

PURPOSE: Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) is the largest cause of non-communicable disease death worldwide. Arterial stiffness is an independent predictor of CVD. Body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and waist-to-hip ratio predict arterial stiffness. However, there is inconstancy in the literature as to which is the best predictor of arterial stiffness. Measured cardiovascular fitness is also an independent predictor of arterial stiffness and is rarely controlled for in epidemiological studies. The purpose of this study was to identify the superior anthropometric predictor of arterial stiffness after controlling for measured fitness.

METHODS: Healthy young adults were recruited from Grand …

The Impact Of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk On Baseline Balance Assessment For Concussion In Collegiate Athletes, Ryan N. Moran, Nicholas G. Murray

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

PURPOSE: Recent literature has linked concussion and neuromuscular deficits in the lower extremity after injury. Neuromuscular control is frequently assessed using balance measures for concussion, but also dynamically to identify anterior cruciate ligament injury (ACL) risk via jump-landing movement screening. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of ACL injury risk on baseline balance assessment for concussion. METHODS: Thirty-nine healthy, collegiate female soccer (n=22) and volleyball (n=17) athletes completed the modified-Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction of Balance (m-CTSIB) and the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) test as part of routine concussion baseline testing and injury …

Changes In Vertical Reaction Force During Treadmill High-Intensity Interval Training, Jared Moore, Garry Cai, George Salem

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has become a popular form of exercise due to its low time burden and easily customized protocols. To date, there has been no investigation into how lower extremity loading (ie. GRF) changes over time during a HIIT protocol. Examining this load variability can help inform protocol development for different populations. PURPOSE: The purpose of this pilot study was to examine how the vertical reaction force (vRF) changes during a HIIT running protocol in order to elucidate how working at high intensity for 4min periods can influence subsequent lower extremity loading. METHODS: Three participants (26±3y) …

A Comparison Of High-Intensity Interval And Moderate Intensity Continuous Training On Glucose Regulation In Sedentary, Obese Individuals, Sophia R. Mirth, Brandon J. Sawyer, Dharini M. Bhammer, Glenn A. Gaesser

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

It is well known that exercise is beneficial in the prevention of type 2 diabetes (T2D) but the ideal type of training is not clear. PURPOSE: To compare the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on blood glucose regulation in sedentary, obese adults. METHODS: 22 sedentary, obese individuals were randomized into either HIIT or MICT. Each group exercised on a cycle ergometer 3 times/wk for 8 wks. The HIIT group performed 10, 1 min intervals at 90-95% HR_max with 1 min rest intervals in between. The MICT group performed 30 min of …

Comparison Of Flights Climbed Between Garmin And Fitbit Devices, Javen Miguel, Alan Garcia, Melissa Strehlow, Dustin W. Davis, Jeff Montes, James W. Navalta

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

With exercise device technology and consumer interest in the field growing, it is important for users to be confident that their wearable fitness devices accurately track their flights climbed. Two manufacturers of devices that track flights climbed are Garmin and Fitbit. Comparing the measurements of flights climbed between devices from these two manufacturers is important to inform consumers as they decide which device to purchase for flight-related activities. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare the measurements of flights climbed between the Garmin fēnix 5 and Fitbit Versa 2. METHODS: Eight participants (6M, 2F, 29 ± 8 yrs, …

Effects Of Short Foot Exercise On Ankle Eversion Velocity, Daniel Metri, Jacob Mayoral, Connor Owen, Andy Arant, Dane Johnson, Robert Dudley, Andrea Du Bois

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The biomechanical position of the foot while landing plays a major role in performance and injury. A common issue of landing is excessive foot pronation and subsequently ankle eversion. This biomechanical position can result in knee abduction, increasing the chance of knee injury. The velocity at which the ankle everts may also be a component of injury as long distance runners that became injured had higher ankle eversion velocity in their landing strides while running. Short foot exercise (SFE) strengthens the intrinsic muscles of the foot and help stabilize the arch which assists in eccentrically controlling pronation. However, acute effects …

Macrophage Response To Damage In Old And Young Skeletal Muscle, Jack Mehling, Robert D. Hyldahl, Mohadeseh Ahmadi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

PURPOSE: In skeletal muscle, macrophages migrate to damaged fibers, influencing the inflammatory response during muscle regeneration. Macrophages experience polarization, exhibiting different phenotypes described as M1 (pro-inflammatory) and M2 (anti-inflammatory.) Failure to properly transition between phenotypes inhibits fiber regeneration. Previous animal literature suggests that dysregulated macrophage polarization may contribute to the decreased regenerative capacity of aging muscle. The purpose of this study is to quantify macrophage response and polarization in a model of muscle damage and regeneration in older humans. We hypothesized that older people would have a higher percentage of M2 macrophages relative to the young. METHODS: Seven …