Anatomy Commons^™

Elucidating The Role Of Injury-Induced Electric Fields (Efs) In Regulating The Astrocytic Response To Injury In The Mammalian Central Nervous System, Matthew L. Baer, Scott C. Henderson, Raymond J. Colello

Anatomy and Neurobiology Publications

Injury to the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) induces astrocytes to change their morphology, to increase their rate of proliferation, and to display directional migration to the injury site, all to facilitate repair. These astrocytic responses to injury occur in a clear temporal sequence and, by their intensity and duration, can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on the repair of damaged CNS tissue. Studies on highly regenerative tissues in non-mammalian vertebrates have demonstrated that the intensity of direct-current extracellular electric fields (EFs) at the injury site, which are 50–100 fold greater than in uninjured tissue, represent a potent signal …

Research Round-Up: Manual Muscle Testing, Mary Insana Fisher, Shana Harrington

Physical Therapy Faculty Publications

Manual muscle testing was developed in response to the need to assess muscle strength losses during the polio outbreak in early part of the 20th century. The development of this original method is credited to Wilhelmine Wright and Robert W. Lovett, MD. Wright presented this method in 1912 in the Boston Medical Surgical Journal, and Lovett expanded the description of the testing method in 1916 in the Journal of the American Medical Association. The development of quantifying muscle strength by rating force generated against external resistance was an important development in objectifying assessment methods of the time.

Today, manual muscle …

Histological Sequences Of Long Bone Development In The New Zealand White Rabbits, Yasser A. Ahmed, Eman A. Abdelrahim, Fatma Khalil

Histology Collection

Long bone development occurred through endochondral ossification. The current study investigated the main histological changes associated with the development of humerus from the New Zealand white rabbits. The upper limb or humerus during embryonic (12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 21, 24 and 27 days) and neonatal (3 and 7 days) development was processed for light microscopy. Three stages preceded endochondral ossification; limb bud (mesenchymal cells), cartilage primordia (mesenchymal condensation and differentiation into chondrocytes) and cartilage template (organization of chondrocytes into proliferative and hypertrophic zones) by 12, 14 and 15 days, respectively. At day 16, cartilage template elongated forming a cartilaginous …

A General Framework For Animal Density Estimation From Acoustic Detections Across A Fixed Microphone Array, Ben C. Stevenson, David L. Borchers, Res Altwegg, René Swift, Douglas M. Gillespie, G. John Measey

Bioacoustics Collection

1. Acoustic monitoring can be an efficient, cheap, non‐invasive alternative to physical trapping of individuals. Spatially explicit capture–recapture (SECR) methods have been proposed to estimate calling animal abundance and density from data collected by a fixed array of microphones. However, these methods make some assumptions that are unlikely to hold in many situations, and the consequences of violating these are yet to be investigated.
2. We generalize existing acoustic SECR methodology, enabling these methods to be used in a much wider variety of situations. We incorporate time‐of‐arrival (TOA) data collected by the microphone array, increasing the precision of calling animal density estimates. …

Identifying Cases Of Undiagnosed, Clinically Significant Copd In Primary Care: Qualitative Insight From Patients In The Target Population, Nancy K. Leidy, Katherine Kim, Elizabeth D. Bacci, Barbara P. Yawn, David M. Mannino, Byron M. Thomashow, R. Graham Barr, Stephen I. Rennard, Julia F. Houfek, Meilan K. Han, Catherine A. Meldrum, Barry J. Make, Russ P. Bowler, Anna W. Steenrod, Lindsey T. Murray, John W. Walsh, Fernando Martinez, High-Risk-Copd Screening Study Group

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: Many cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are diagnosed only after significant loss of lung function or during exacerbations.

AIMS: This study is part of a multi-method approach to develop a new screening instrument for identifying undiagnosed, clinically significant COPD in primary care.

METHODS: Subjects with varied histories of COPD diagnosis, risk factors and history of exacerbations were recruited through five US clinics (four pulmonary, one primary care). Phase I: Eight focus groups and six telephone interviews were conducted to elicit descriptions of risk factors for COPD, recent or historical acute respiratory events, and symptoms to inform the …

The Need For Theory To Guide Concussion Research, Dennis Molfese

Center for Brain, Biology, and Behavior: Faculty Publications

While the focus on concussion research has expanded greatly over the past decade, progress in identifying the mechanisms and consequences of head injury, the recovery path and the development of potential interventions to facilitate recovery have been largely absent. Instead, the field has largely progressed through an accumulation of data without the guidance of any systematic theory to guide the formulation of research questions or generate testable hypotheses. As part of this special issue on sports concussion, we advance a theory to describe the evolution of a neural network during the development of a cognitive process as well as the …

Resting-State Brain Connectivity After Surgical And Behavioral Weight Loss, Rebecca J. Lepping, Amanda S. Bruce, Alex Francisco, Hung-Wen Yeh, Laura E. Martin, Joshua N. Powell, Laura Hancock, Trisha M. Patrician, Florence J. Breslin, Niazy Selim, Joseph E. Donnelly, William M. Brooks, Cary R. Savage, W. Kyle Simmons, Jared M. Bruce

Center for Brain, Biology, and Behavior: Faculty Publications

Objective: Changes in food-cue neural reactivity associated with behavioral and surgical weight loss interventions have been reported. Resting functional connectivity represents tonic neural activity that may contribute to weight loss success. This study explores whether intervention type is associated with differences in functional connectivity after weight loss. Methods: Fifteen participants with obesity were recruited prior to adjustable gastric banding surgery. Thirteen demographically matched participants with obesity were selected from a separate behavioral diet intervention. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging was collected 3 months after surgery/ behavioral intervention. ANOVA was used to examine post-weight loss differences between the two groups in …

Differences In Prefrontal Cortex Activation And Deactivation During Strategic Episodic Verbal Memory Encoding In Mild Cognitive Impairment, Joana B. Balardin, Marcelo C. Batistuzzo, Maria Da Graca Moraes Martin, Joao R. Sato, Jerusa Smid, Claudia Porto, Cary R. Savage, Ricardo Nitrini, Edson Amaro Jr., Eliane C. Miotto

Center for Brain, Biology, and Behavior: Faculty Publications

In this study we examined differences in fMRI activation and deactivation patterns during episodic verbal memory encoding between individuals with MCI (n = 18) and healthy controls (HCs) (n = 17). Participants were scanned in two different sessions during the application of self-initiated or directed instructions to apply semantic strategies at encoding of word lists. MCI participants showed reduced free recall scores when using self-initiated encoding strategies that were increased to baseline controls' level after directed instructions were provided. During directed strategic encoding, greater recruitment of frontoparietal regions was observed in both MCI and control groups; group differences …

Design Of A Multi-Center Immunophenotyping Analysis Of Peripheral Blood, Sputum And Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid In The Subpopulations And Intermediate Outcome Measures In Copd Study (Spiromics), Christine M. Freeman, Sean Crudgington, Valerie R. Stolberg, Jeanette P. Brown, Joanne Sonstein, Neil E. Alexis, Claire M. Doerschuk, Patricia V. Basta, Elizabeth E. Carretta, David J. Couper, Annette T. Hastie, Robert J. Kaner, Wanda K. O'Neal, Robert Paine, Stephen I. Rennard, Daichi Shimbo, Prescott G. Woodruff, Michelle Zeidler, Jeffrey L. Curtis

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: Subpopulations and Intermediate Outcomes in COPD Study (SPIROMICS) is a multi-center longitudinal, observational study to identify novel phenotypes and biomarkers of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In a subset of 300 subjects enrolled at six clinical centers, we are performing flow cytometric analyses of leukocytes from induced sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and peripheral blood. To minimize several sources of variability, we use a "just-in-time" design that permits immediate staining without pre-fixation of samples, followed by centralized analysis on a single instrument.

METHODS: The Immunophenotyping Core prepares 12-color antibody panels, which are shipped to the six Clinical Centers shortly before …

The Effect Of Statins On Blood Gene Expression In Copd, Ma'en Obeidat, Nick Fishbane, Yunlong Nie, Virginia Chen, Zsuzsanna Hollander, Scottj Tebbutt, Yohan Bossé, Raymond T. Ng, Bruce E. Miller, Bruce Mcmanus, Stephen I. Rennard, Peter D. Paré, Don D. Sin

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: COPD is currently the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. Statins are lipid lowering agents with documented cardiovascular benefits. Observational studies have shown that statins may have a beneficial role in COPD. The impact of statins on blood gene expression from COPD patients is largely unknown.

OBJECTIVE: Identify blood gene signature associated with statin use in COPD patients, and the pathways underpinning this signature that could explain any potential benefits in COPD.

METHODS: Whole blood gene expression was measured on 168 statin users and 451 non-users from the ECLIPSE study using the Affymetrix Human Gene 1.1 ST microarray chips. …

3d Mr Ventricle Segmentation In Pre-Term Infants With Post-Hemorrhagic Ventricle Dilation, Wu Qiu, Jing Yuan, Jessica Kishimoto, Yimin Chen

Anatomy and Cell Biology Publications

Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) or bleed within the brain is a common condition among pre-term infants that occurs in very low birth weight preterm neonates. The prognosis is further worsened by the development of progressive ventricular dilatation, i.e., post-hemorrhagic ventricle dilation (PHVD), which occurs in 10-30% of IVH patients. In practice, predicting PHVD accurately and determining if that specific patient with ventricular dilatation requires the ability to measure accurately ventricular volume. While monitoring of PHVD in infants is typically done by repeated US and not MRI, once the patient has been treated, the follow-up over the lifetime of the patient is …

Quantification Of Cerebral Ventricle Volume Change Of Preterm Neonates Using 3d Ultrasound Images, Yimin Chen, Jessica Kishimoto, Wu Qiu, Sandrine De Ribaupierre, Aaron Fenster, Bernard Chiu

Anatomy and Cell Biology Publications

Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) is a major cause of brain injury in preterm neonates. Quantitative measurement of ventricular dilation or shrinkage is important for monitoring patients and in evaluation of treatment options. 3D ultrasound (US) has been used to monitor the ventricle volume as a biomarker for ventricular dilation. However, volumetric quantification does not provide information as to where dilation occurs. The location where dilation occurs may be related to specific neurological problems later in life. For example, posterior horn enlargement, with thinning of the corpus callosum and parietal white matter fibres, could be linked to poor visuo-spatial abilities seen in …

Temperamental Variation In Learned Irrelevance In Humans, Aleksandra Gruszka, Adrian M. Owen

Anatomy and Cell Biology Publications

BACKGROUND Learned irrelevance (LIRR) represents one of the mechanisms of attentional set-shifting and refers to the inability to attend to, or to learn about, any aspect of a stimulus previously experienced as irrelevant. Although it has been extensively studied in the context of clinical populations, not much is known about LIRR effects in relation to normal variation in individual differences. The present study was designed to assess how temperamental factors may modulate LIRR. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURES Sixty-eight healthy volunteers performed a visual discrimination learning task modelled after Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. To test the susceptibility to learned irrelevance, participants were …

Records Review Of Musculoskeletal Injuries In Aeromedical Evacuation Personnel, Jennifer L. Serres, Brittany L. Fouts, Susan F. Dukes, Genny M. Maupin, Molly E. Wade

United States Air Force: Publications

Background: Aeromedical evacuation providers care for patients during air transport. By applying standard medical practices, oftentimes developed for ground care, these practitioners perform their mission duties under additional physical stress in this unique medical environment. Awkward postures and excessive forces are common occurrences among personnel operating in this domain. Additionally, anecdotal reports highlight the risk of developing musculoskeletal injuries for these providers. Currently, there is limited research focusing on musculoskeletal injuries in aeromedical evacuation providers.

Purpose: To determine the prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries and associated symptoms in aeromedical evacuation providers to understand the risk and burden of these injuries to …

Pursuing Cardioprotective Health Through Research, Sterling Giles

AUCTUS: The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Scholarship

Recent VCU Chemistry graduate Salma Omer and her team of fellow researchers discovered that the supplement Viagra, intended for treating erectile dysfunction, may protect the heart from diabetic damage and damage from excessive alcohol consumption.

Identifying A Gene Expression Signature Of Frequent Copd Exacerbations In Peripheral Blood Using Network Methods, Jarrett D. Morrow, Weiliang Qiu, Divya Chhabra, Stephen I. Rennard, Paula Belloni, Anton Belousov, Sreekumar G. Pillai, Craig P. Hersh

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), characterized by acute deterioration in symptoms, may be due to bacterial or viral infections, environmental exposures, or unknown factors. Exacerbation frequency may be a stable trait in COPD patients, which could imply genetic susceptibility. Observing the genes, networks, and pathways that are up- and down-regulated in COPD patients with differing susceptibility to exacerbations will help to elucidate the molecular signature and pathogenesis of COPD exacerbations.

METHODS: Gene expression array and plasma biomarker data were obtained using whole-blood samples from subjects enrolled in the Treatment of Emphysema With a Gamma-Selective Retinoid Agonist (TESRA) …

Measurement Of 8-Oxo-7, 8-Dihydro-2' Deoxyguanosine In Human Semen And Urine By Isotope-Dilution Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry With On-Line Solid Phase Extraction: Comparison With A Commercial Available Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Hueiwang A. Jeng, Mu R. Chao, Ruei N. Li, Chih H. Pan, Wen Y. Lin

Community & Environmental Health Faculty Publications

This study aimed to assess the correlation between 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dGuo) in semen and urine, and to compare the analytical methods of the isotope-diluted liquid chromatograph-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) coupled with an on-line Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) and commercial Enzyme- Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) used for detecting 8-oxo-dGuo as an oxidative DNA damage marker. Semen and urine samples were simultaneously collected from 85 apparently healthy human subjects. An optimized DNA extraction method was employed to extract DNA from sperm while minimizing oxidation of DNA. All of the biological samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS and ELISA. All of the biological samples were detected …

Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Prevent Pulmonary Endothelial Hyperpermeability And Acute Lung Injury By Regulating Heat Shock Protein 90 Function, Atul D. Joshi, Nektarios Barabutis, Charalampos Birmpas, Christiana Dimitropoulou, Gagan Thangjam, Mary Cherian-Shaw, John Dennison, John D. Catravas

Bioelectrics Publications

Transendothelial hyperpermeability caused by numerous agonists is dependent on heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) and leads to endothelial barrier dysfunction (EBD). Inhibition of Hsp90 protects and restores transendothelial permeability. Hyperacetylation of Hsp90, as by inhibitors of histone deacetylase (HDAC), suppresses its chaperone function and mimics the effects of Hsp90 inhibitors. In this study we assessed the role of HDAC in mediating lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced transendothelial hyperpermeability and acute lung injury (ALI). We demonstrate that HDAC inhibition protects against LPS-mediated EBD. Inhibition of multiple HDAC by the general inhibitors panobinostat or trichostatin provided protection against LPS-induced transendothelial hyperpermeability, acetylated and suppressed Hsp90 …

Intravascular Atp And The Regulation Of Blood Flow And Oxygen Delivery In Humans, Anne R. Crecelius, Brett S. Kirby, Frank A. Dinenno

Health and Sport Science Faculty Publications

Regulation of vascular tone is a complex response that integrates multiple signals which allow for blood flow and oxygen supply to appropriately match oxygen demand. Here, we discuss the potential role of intravascular ATP as a primary factor in these responses and propose that deficient ATP release may contribute to impairments in vascular control exhibited in aged and diseased populations.

Female Breakfast Skippers Display A Disrupted Cortisol Rhythm And Levated Blood Pressure, Megan Witbracht, Nancy L. Keim, Shavawn Forester, Adrianne Widaman, Kevin D. Laugero

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Chronic stress and over-activity in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis may link breakfast skipping and poor cardiometabolic health. Missing the first major meal of the day in rodents prolongs elevated circulating corticosterone at a time when it's normally decreasing. To extend these findings to humans, we hypothesized that habitual breakfast skippers would display a similar pattern of circulating cortisol and alterations in meal and stress-induced cortisol reactions. Normal weight to obese women aged 18–45 years old who were strictly defined as either breakfast skippers (n = 30) or breakfast eaters (n = 35) were invited to participate in our …

Empagliflozin In The Treatment Of Type 2 Diabetes: Evidence To Date, Jay H. Shubrook, Babak Baradar Bokaie, Sarah E. Adkins

Faculty Publications & Research of the TUC College of Osteopathic Medicine

In the last decade, researchers have gained a greater understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms of type 2 diabetes as a chronic and progressive disease. One of the more recent treatment targets is the kidney. The kidneys become maladaptive in diabetes by increasing the reabsorption of glucose above the normal physiologic renal threshold. This discovery has led to the development of the sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2). These agents readjust the renal threshold for glucose reabsorption to a lower level and decrease glucose reabsorption, while increasing urinary glucose when the glucose is above the renal threshold and subsequently lowering plasma glucose. …

Vigorous Exercise Effect On Cardiovascular Health, Aryeh Mahana

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

Many studies examine the effects of vigorous cardiovascular exercise on the heart. Intense exercise causes frequent muscle contractions in the heart and specific biomarkers that usually signify a myocardial infarction are released into the bloodstream. However, studies indicate that there might not be a correlation between the release of biomarkers and cardiac function. Another study shows that long term vigorous exercise negatively affects the heart by dramatically increasing the mass and volume of the right and left ventricles, thereby resulting in hypertrophy. The cardiac hypertrophy is still evident even after the subjects have stopped exercising. Cardiac hypertrophy results in myocardial …

Neural Function, Injury, And Stroke Subtype Predict Treatment Gains After Stroke, Erin Burke Quinlan, Lucy Dodakian, Jill See, Alison Mackenzie, Vu Le, Mike Wojnowicz, Babak Shahbaba, Steven C. Cramer

Physical Therapy Faculty Articles and Research

Objective

This study was undertaken to better understand the high variability in response seen when treating human subjects with restorative therapies poststroke. Preclinical studies suggest that neural function, neural injury, and clinical status each influence treatment gains; therefore, the current study hypothesized that a multivariate approach incorporating these 3 measures would have the greatest predictive value.

Methods

Patients 3 to 6 months poststroke underwent a battery of assessments before receiving 3 weeks of standardized upper extremity robotic therapy. Candidate predictors included measures of brain injury (including to gray and white matter), neural function (cortical function and cortical connectivity), and clinical …

Oncology Section Edge Task Force On Breast Cancer Outcomes: A Systematic Review Of Outcome Measures For Functional Mobility, Mary Insana Fisher, Jeannette Lee, Claire Davies, Hannah Geyer, Genevieve Colon, Lucinda Pfalzer

Physical Therapy Faculty Publications

Background: Breast cancer treatments in women with breast cancer often result in physical impairments that lead to activity limitations and participation restrictions. These limitations and restrictions manifest in impaired functional mobility skills that may impact survivorship. Thus, evaluation of functional mobility is an important part of survivorship care.

Purpose: To identify functional mobility outcome measures that possess strong psychometric properties and are clinically useful for examination of women treated for breast cancer.

Methods: Multiple electronic databases were searched for articles published after 1995. Studies were included if they reported psychometric properties, used clinically feasible methods, were performed on adults, and …

The Effects Of Home-Based Pilates In Healthy College-Age Females, Betsy Donahoe-Fillmore, Mary Insana Fisher, C. Jayne Brahler

Physical Therapy Faculty Publications

Objectives: To quantify and determine the effects of Pilates on core endurance, hamstring flexibility, balance, body composition/mass and perceived stress level in healthy college age females.

Study Design: Randomized controlled trial design.

Background: Emerging research on the Pilates technique is inconclusive regarding benefits to core endurance, flexibility, balance, body mass, and perceived stress.

Methods and Measures: Female college students (n=57; 18-35 years old) were randomly assigned to a Pilates group, who exercised at home with a DVD, or a control group who did not engage in Pilates practice. Core endurance, hamstring flexibility, balance, body composition and stress measurements were taken …

High Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Als Mogelijke Hulp Bij Afasie-Herstel, Dirk B. Den Ouden

Communication Sciences and Disorders Faculty Articles and Research

Samenvatting

Nieuwe kennis over het plastische vermogen van het volwassen brein, ook na hersenschade, heeft geleid tot hernieuwde interesse in technieken om deze plasticiteit fysiek te sturen. Een van die technieken is transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS), waarmee de exciteerbaarheid van hersencellen beïnvloed wordt door een zwakke gelijkstroom door de hersenschors te leiden. Als met deze methode hersenplasticiteit bevorderd en gestuurd kan worden, is het wellicht mogelijk om de uitkomsten van afasietherapie te verbeteren, door het aanpakken van de fysieke bron van de stoornis. Dit artikel behandelt kort de geschiedenis en de werking van tDCS, alvorens een overzicht te geven …

Four-Digit Hand: Anatomy Of Ray Ii Amputation, Sadie Volk

The Journal of Undergraduate Research

The South Dakota State University anatomy program received a male cadaver, age eighty-four, in January 2014. Upon arrival, the cadaver was observed for any signs of surgery, skin ulcerations, or abnormality. The inspection revealed that his right hand only had four digits. In order to observe such a unique extremity, a dissection was conducted to understand the anatomy of the four-digit hand. This dissection would search for standard anatomical landmarks as well as abnormalities that could have been in relation to the absent finger. In this case study, both amputation and a possible birth defect were taken into account and …

Muscular And Neural Contributions To Postactivation Potentiation, Brian Joseph Wallace

Theses and Dissertations--Kinesiology and Health Promotion

Muscle performance is partially a consequence of its recent contractile history. Postactivation potentiation (PAP) can occur after muscle contractions and leads to enhanced neuromuscular performance. The purpose of this dissertation was to explain the relationship between muscle factors (twitch potentiation, TP) and neural factors (reflex potentiation, RP) contributing to overall PAP following a non-fatiguing volitional muscle contraction. The tibial nerves of fifteen resistance trained volunteers (eleven men, four women) were stimulated intermittently at supramaximal (Mmax) and submaximal (Hmax) intensities for 20 minutes on separate days under three conditions: rest (Control); after a after a 10 second maximum voluntary isometric contraction …

Target-Directed Biosynthetic Evolution: Redirecting Plant Evolution To Genomically Optimize A Plant’S Pharmacological Profile, Dustin Paul Brown

Theses and Dissertations--Neuroscience

The dissertation describes a novel method for plant drug discovery based on mutation and selection of plant cells. Despite the industry focus on chemical synthesis, plants remain a source of potent and complex bioactive metabolites. Many of these have evolved as defensive compounds targeted on key proteins in the CNS of herbivorous insects, for example the insect dopamine transporter (DAT). Because of homology with the human DAT protein some of these metabolites have high abuse potential, but others may be valuable in treating drug dependence. This dissertation redirects the evolution of a native Lobelia species toward metabolites with greater activity …

Segmental Musculoskeletal Examinations Using Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (Dxa): Positioning And Analysis Considerations, Nicolas H. Hart, Sophia Nimphius, Tania Spiteri, Jodie L. Cochrane, Robert U. Newton

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Musculoskeletal examinations provide informative and valuable quantitative insight into muscle and bone health. DXA is one mainstream tool used to accurately and reliably determine body composition components and bone mass characteristics in-vivo. Presently, whole body scan models separate the body into axial and appendicular regions, however there is a need for localised appendicular segmentation models to further examine regions of interest within the upper and lower extremities. Similarly, in-consistencies pertaining to patient positioning exist in the litera-ture which influence measurement precision and analysis out-comes highlighting a need for standardised procedure. This paper provides standardised and reproducible: 1) positioning and analysis …