Anatomy Commons^™

Bmi-1 Absence Causes Premature Brain Degeneration, Guangliang Cao, Minxia Gu, Min Zhu, Junying Gao, Ying Yin, Charles Marshall, Ming Xiao, Jiong Ding, Dengshun Miao

Physical Therapy Faculty Publications

Bmi-1, a polycomb transcriptional repressor, is implicated in cell cycle regulation and cell senescence. Its absence results in generalized astrogliosis and epilepsy during the postnatal development, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate the occurrence of oxidative stress in the brain of four-week-old Bmi-1 null mice. The mice showed various hallmarks of neurodegeneration including synaptic loss, axonal demyelination, reactive gliosis and brain mitochondrial damage. Moreover, astroglial glutamate transporters and glutamine synthetase decreased in the Bmi-1 null hippocampus, which might contribute to the sporadic epileptic-like seizures in these mice. These results indicate that Bmi-1 is required for maintaining …

The Expression Of Ecotropic Virus Integration Site-1 In Seven Cancer Cell Lines, Wendy Bindeman '12

Student Publications & Research

The ecotropic virus integration site-1 (EVI1) gene is a transcriptional repressor implicated in the control of cell proliferation and frequently over-expressed in cancerous cells. I investigated the expression of this gene across seven cancer cell lines of varying morphologies. The tested lines included leukemia lines Kasumi-3, U937, MOLT-4, and CEM, breast cancer line MCF7, colorectal cancer line HT-29, and glioblastoma line M059K. Kasumi-3 and HT-29 are documented to have high EVI1 expression. Protein concentrations were normalized with respect to actin using SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. Western blots for EVI1 showed expression of an unidentified protein with a molecular weight of …

Acute Myeloid Leukaemia In Children: Experience At A Tertiary Care Facility Of Pakistan, Zehra Fadoo, Naureen Mushtaq, Saima Alvi, Muhammad Ali

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Objective: To document the demographics and outcome of children with Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) treated at a tertiary care facility of Pakistan.

Methods: A retrospective study was conducted at Aga Khan University on children (less than 15 years) diagnosed to have AML between January 2000 to May 2007.Total 40 cases were diagnosed out of which 37 charts were available for review.

Results: The average age of presentation was 8.5±4.5 years and 75% were males. The most common presenting feature was fever in 83% followed by bleeding in 41% and pallor in 39%. Initial WBC of > 100,000 was seen in 19% …

Shared Resistance To Aging And Als In Neuromuscular Junctions Of Specific Muscles, Gregorio Valdez, Juan C. Tapia, Jeff W. Lichtman, Michael A. Fox, Joshua R. Sanes

Anatomy and Neurobiology Publications

Normal aging and neurodegenerative diseases both lead to structural and functional alterations in synapses. Comparison of synapses that are generally similar but respond differently to insults could provide the basis for discovering mechanisms that underlie susceptibility or resistance to damage. Here, we analyzed skeletal neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) in 16 mouse muscles to seek such differences. We find that muscles respond in one of three ways to aging. In some, including most limb and trunk muscles, age-related alterations to NMJs are progressive and extensive during the second postnatal year. NMJs in other muscles, such as extraocular muscles, are strikingly resistant to …

Basic Concepts In Understanding Recovery Of Function In Vestibular Reflex Networks During Vestibular Compensation, Kenna D. Peusner, Mei Shao, Rebecca Reddaway, June C. Hirsch

Anatomy and Regenerative Biology Faculty Publications

Unilateral peripheral vestibular lesions produce a syndrome of oculomotor and postural deficits with the symptoms at rest, the static symptoms, partially or completely normalizing shortly after the lesion due to a process known as vestibular compensation. The symptoms are thought to result from changes in the activity of vestibular sensorimotor reflexes. Since the vestibular nuclei must be intact for recovery to occur, many investigations have focused on studying these neurons after lesions. At present, the neuronal plasticity underlying early recovery from the static symptoms is not fully understood. Here we propose that knowledge of the reflex identity and input–output connections …

Targeting The Cancer Cell Cycle By Cold Atmospheric Plasma, Olga Volotskova, Teresa S. Hawley, Mary Ann Stepp, Michael Keidar

Anatomy and Regenerative Biology Faculty Publications

Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP), a technology based on quasi-neutral ionized gas at low temperatures, is currently being evaluated as a new highly selective alternative addition to existing cancer therapies. Here, we present a first attempt to identify the mechanism of CAP action. CAP induced a robust ~2-fold G2/M increase in two different types of cancer cells with different degrees of tumorigenicity. We hypothesize that the increased sensitivity of cancer cells to CAP treatment is caused by differences in the distribution of cancer cells and normal cells within the cell cycle. The expression of γH2A.X (pSer139), an oxidative stress reporter indicating …

Quantification Of Collagen Organization Using Fractal Dimensions And Fourier Transforms, Kayt E. Frisch, Sarah E. Duenwald-Kuehl, Hirohito Kobayashi, Connie S. Chamberlain, Roderic S. Lakes, Ray Vanderby Jr.

Faculty Publications - Biomedical, Mechanical, and Civil Engineering

Collagen fibers and fibrils that comprise tendons and ligaments are disrupted or damaged during injury. Fibrillogenesis during healing produces a matrix that is initially quite disorganized, but remodels over time to resemble, but not replicate, the original roughly parallel microstructure. Quantification of these changes is traditionally a laborious and subjective task. In this work we applied two automated techniques, fast Fourier transformation (FFT) and fractal dimension analysis (FA) to quantify the organization of collagen fibers or fibrils. Using multi-photon images of collagen fibers obtained from rat ligament we showed that for healing ligaments, FA differentiates more clearly between the different …

Early Hearing-Impairment Results In Crossmodal Reorganization Of Ferret Core Auditory Cortex, M. Alex Meredith, Brian L. Allman

Anatomy and Neurobiology Publications

Numerous investigations of cortical crossmodal plasticity, most often in congenital or early-deaf subjects, have indicated that secondary auditory cortical areas reorganize to exhibit visual responsiveness while the core auditory regions are largely spared. However, a recent study of adult-deafened ferrets demonstrated that core auditory cortex was reorganized by the somatosensory modality. Because adult animals have matured beyond their critical period of sensory development and plasticity, it was not known if adult-deafening and early-deafening would generate the same crossmodal results. The present study used young, ototoxically-lesioned ferrets () that, after maturation (avg. = 173 days old), showed significant hearing deficits (avg. …

Optogenetic Stimulation Of The Corticothalamic Pathway Affects Relay Cells And Gabaergic Neurons Differently In The Mouse Visual Thalamus, Chris W. D. Jurgens, Karen A. Bell, A. Rory Mcquiston, William Guido

Anatomy and Neurobiology Publications

The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) serves as the primary conduit of retinal information to visual cortex. In addition to retinal input, dLGN receives a large feedback projection from layer VI of visual cortex. Such input modulates thalamic signal transmission in different ways that range from gain control to synchronizing network activity in a stimulus-specific manner. However, the mechanisms underlying such modulation have been difficult to study, in part because of the complex circuitry and diverse cell types this pathway innervates. To address this and overcome some of the technical limitations inherent in studying the corticothalamic (CT) pathway, we adopted …

Examining Fatigue In Copd: Development, Validity And Reliability Of A Modified Version Of Facit-F Scale, Khaled Al-Shair, Hana Muellerova, Janelle Yorke, Stephen I. Rennard, Emiel F.M. Wouters, Nicola A. Hanania, Amir Sharafkhaneh, Jørgen Vestbo, Eclipse Investigators

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

INTRODUCTION: Fatigue is a disruptive symptom that inhibits normal functional performance of COPD patients in daily activities. The availability of a short, simple, reliable and valid scale would improve assessment of the characteristics and influence of fatigue in COPD.

METHODS: At baseline, 2107 COPD patients from the ECLIPSE cohort completed the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy Fatigue (FACIT-F) scale. We used well-structured classic method, the principal components analysis (PCA) and Rasch analysis for structurally examining the 13-item FACIT-F.

RESULTS: Four items were less able to capture fatigue characteristics in COPD and were deleted. PCA was applied to the remaining …

The Role Of Corticotropin-Releasing Factor In The Behavior And Proinflammatory Activity Of Separated Guinea Pig Pups, Vincent Rasahd Alexander

Browse all Theses and Dissertations

Isolation of guinea pig pups in a novel environment first produces active behaviors such as vocalizing and movement; over time, these behaviors wane and pups show characteristic passive responses similar to those produced by increased proinflammatory activity. Further, isolation of pups on two consecutive days has recently been shown to enhance those passive responses on the second day. Endogenous proinflammatory activity is thought to mediate the enhancement (sensitization). An injection of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) has been shown to increase passive behavior, possibly by increasing proinflammatory activity. The present study further investigated the role of CRF on proinflammatory activity and behavior …

Cognitive Effects Of One Season Of Head Impacts In A Cohort Of Collegiate Contact Sport Athletes, Thomas W. Mcallister,, Laura A. Flashman, Arthur C. Maerlender, Richard M. Greenwald, Jonathan G. Beckwith, Tor D. Tosteson, Joe Crisco, Per Gunner Brolinson, Stefan Duma, Ann-Christine Duhaime, M. R. Grove, John H. Turco

Center for Brain, Biology, and Behavior: Faculty Publications

Objective: To determine whether exposure to repetitive head impacts over a single season negatively affects cognitive performance in collegiate contact sport athletes.

Methods: This is a prospective cohort study at 3 Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association athletic programs. Participants were 214 Division I college varsity football and ice hockey players who wore instrumented helmets that recorded the acceleration-time history of the head following impact, and 45 noncontact sport athletes. All athletes were assessed prior to and shortly after the season with a cognitive screening battery (ImPACT) and a subgroup of athletes also were assessed with 7 measures from a …

Effects Of Inhaled Corticosteroids On Airway Inflammation In Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review And Meta-Analysis, Rachel Jen, Stephen I. Rennard, Don D. Sin

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic inflammation in the small airways. The effect of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) on lung inflammation in COPD remains uncertain. We sought to determine the effects of ICS on inflammatory indices in bronchial biopsies and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COPD.

METHODS: We searched Medline, Embase, Cinahl, and the Cochrane database for randomized, controlled clinical trials that used bronchial biopsies and bronchoalveolar lavage to evaluate the effects of ICS in stable COPD. For each chosen study, we calculated the mean differences in the concentrations of inflammatory cells before and after treatment …

A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial Of Varenicline For Smoking Cessation Allowing Flexible Quit Dates, Stephen I. Rennard, John Hughes, Paul M. Cinciripini, Eva Kralikova, Tobias Raupach, Carmen Arteaga, Lisa B. St Aubin, Cristina Russ, The Flexible Quit Date Study Group

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

INTRODUCTION: Current smoking cessation guidelines recommend setting a quit date prior to starting pharmacotherapy. However, providing flexibility in the date of quitting may be more acceptable to some smokers. The objective of this study was to compare varenicline 1 mg twice daily (b.i.d.) with placebo in subjects using a flexible quit date paradigm after starting medication.

METHODS: In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled international study, smokers of ≥10 cigarettes/day, aged 18-75 years, and who were motivated to quit were randomized (3:1) to receive varenicline 1 mg b.i.d. or placebo for 12 weeks. Subjects were followed up through Week 24. Subjects were …

Perceptual Enhancement Of Arteriovenous Malformation In Mri Angiography Displays, Abhari Kamyar, John S. H. Baxter, Roy Eagleson, Terry Peters, Sandrine De Ribaupierre

Anatomy and Cell Biology Publications

The importance of presenting medical images in an intuitive and usable manner during a procedure is essential. However, most medical visualization interfaces, particularly those designed for minimally-invasive surgery, suffer from a number of issues as a consequence of disregarding the human perceptual, cognitive, and motor system's limitations. This matter is even more prominent when human visual system is overlooked during the design cycle. One example is the visualization of the neuro-vascular structures in MR angiography (MRA) images. This study investigates perceptual performance in the usability of a display to visualize blood vessels in MRA volumes using a contour enhancement technique. …

The Fit-Hansa Demonstrates Reliability And Convergent Validity Of Functional Performance In Patients With Shoulder Disorders, Prajyot Kumta, Joy C. Macdermid, Saurabh Mehta, Paul W. Stratford

Physical Therapy Faculty Research

Study

DesignPsychometric study design.

Objectives

To assess the test-retest reliability and convergent validity of the Functional Impairment Test-Hand and Neck/Shoulder/Arm (FIT-HaNSA) in patients with shoulder disorders.

Background

Performance tests that assess functional ability of patients with shoulder disorders can provide useful information for making clinical or return-to-activity decisions. No performance-based shoulder test has yet demonstrated sufficient relevance or clinical measurement properties. The FIT-HaNSA examines upper extremity performance during repetitive tasks that emphasize shoulder reaching and static postures and, therefore, has greater relevance for assessing performance.

Methods

Thirty-six patients with shoulder disorders and 65 healthy controls were recruited for the study. …

Persistent Systemic Inflammation Is Associated With Poor Clinical Outcomes In Copd: A Novel Phenotype, Alvar Agustí, Lisa D. Edwards, Stephen I. Rennard, William Macnee, Ruth Tal-Singer, Bruce E. Miller, Jørgen Vestbo, David A. Lomas, Peter M.A. Calverley, Emiel Wouters, Courtney Crim, Julie C. Yates, Edwin K. Silverman, Harvey O. Coxson, Per Bakke, Ruth J. Mayer, Bartolome Celli, Evaluation Of Copd Longitudinally To Identify Predictive Surrogate Endpoints (Eclipse) Investigators

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: Because chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a heterogeneous condition, the identification of specific clinical phenotypes is key to developing more effective therapies. To explore if the persistence of systemic inflammation is associated with poor clinical outcomes in COPD we assessed patients recruited to the well-characterized ECLIPSE cohort (NCT00292552).

METHODS AND FINDINGS: Six inflammatory biomarkers in peripheral blood (white blood cells (WBC) count and CRP, IL-6, IL-8, fibrinogen and TNF-α levels) were quantified in 1,755 COPD patients, 297 smokers with normal spirometry and 202 non-smoker controls that were followed-up for three years. We found that, at baseline, 30% of …

Association Of Ireb2 And Chrna3 Polymorphisms With Airflow Obstruction In Severe Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency., Woo Jin Kim, Alice M. Wood, Alan F. Barker, Mark L. Brantly, Edward J. Campbell, Edward Eden, Gerard Mcelvaney, Stephen I. Rennard, Robert A. Sandhaus, James M. Stocks, James K. Stoller, Charlie Strange, Gerard Turino, Edwin K. Silverman, Robert A. Stockley, Dawn L. Demeo

Journal Articles: Pulmonary & Critical Care Med

BACKGROUND: The development of COPD in subjects with alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency is likely to be influenced by modifier genes. Genome-wide association studies and integrative genomics approaches in COPD have demonstrated significant associations with SNPs in the chromosome 15q region that includes CHRNA3 (cholinergic nicotine receptor alpha3) and IREB2 (iron regulatory binding protein 2).We investigated whether SNPs in the chromosome 15q region would be modifiers for lung function and COPD in AAT deficiency.

METHODS: The current analysis included 378 PIZZ subjects in the AAT Genetic Modifiers Study and a replication cohort of 458 subjects from the UK AAT Deficiency National …

Primary Cilia Regulates The Directional Migration And Barrier Integrity Of Endothelial Cells Through The Modulation Of Hsp27 Dependent Actin Cytoskeletal Organization, Thomas J. Jones, Ravi K. Adapala, Werner J. Geldenhuys, Chris Bursley, Wissam A. Aboualaiwi, Surya M. Nauli, Charles K. Thodeti

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Cilia are mechanosensing organelles that communicate extracellular signals into intracellular responses. Altered functions of primary cilia play a key role in the development of various diseases including polycystic kidney disease. Here, we show that endothelial cells from the oak ridge polycystic kidney (Tg737orpk/orpk) mouse, with impaired cilia assembly, exhibit a reduction in the actin stress fibers and focal adhesions compared to wild type. In contrast, endothelial cells from polycystin-1 deficient mice (pkd1null/null), with impaired cilia function, display robust stress fibers and focal adhesion assembly. We found that the Tg737orpk/orpk cells exhibit impaired directional migration and endothelial cell monolayer permeability compared …

Effect Of Honey On Anaerobic Performance In Male Collegiate Soccer Players, Katelyn G. Woolfolk

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

Author's abstract: Carbohydrate supplementation has been associated with increased performance in aerobic and anaerobic activity. Honey, specifically, has shown to increase performance in aerobic exercise as well as provide other health benefits. The purpose of this study was to see if honey, a natural substance, has a positive effect on anaerobic performance, rates of perceived exertion, and gastrointestinal distress. Subjects consisted of 18 healthy, Division 1 collegiate male soccer players (19.39 ± 0.85 yr, 75.39 ± 7.97 kg). All had no allergies and were cleared for participation by a certified athletic trainer. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three …

Post Gastric Bypass Hypoglycemia: Four Cases Treated Successfully With Alphaglucosidase Inhibitor Therapy, Shavon S. Frankhouser Do, Aakif N. Ahmad Do, Gretchen A. Perilli Md, Benjamin J. Quintana Md, Marc A. Vengrove Do, Facp

Department of Medicine

No abstract provided.

How To Write An Article: Preparing A Publishable Manuscript!, Vinod B. Shidham, Martha B. Pitman, Richard M. Demay

Department of Pathology

Most of the scientific work presented as abstracts (platforms and posters) at various conferences have the potential to be published as articles in peer-reviewed journals. This DIY (Do It Yourself) article on how to achieve that goal is an extension of the symposium presented at the 36th European Congress of Cytology, Istanbul, Turkey (presentation available on net at http://alturl.com/q6bfp). The criteria for manuscript authorship should be based on the ICMJE (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors) Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts. The next step is to choose the appropriate journal to submit the manuscript and review the 'Instructions to …

Cytomegalovirus Cc Chemokine Promotes Immune Cell Migration, Jennifer Totonchy, Michael Denton, Craig N. Kreklywich, Takeshi Andoh, Jessica M. Osborn, Daniel Chen, Ilhem Messaoudi, Susan L. Orloff, Daniel N. Streblow

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Cytomegaloviruses manipulate the host chemokine/receptor axis by altering cellular chemokine expression and by encoding multiple chemokines and chemokine receptors. Similar to human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), rat cytomegalovirus (RCMV) encodes multiple CC chemokine-analogous proteins, including r129 (HCMV UL128 homologue) and r131 (HCMV UL130 and MCMV m129/130 homologues). Although these proteins play a role in CMV entry, their function as chemotactic cytokines remains unknown. In the current study, we examined the role of the RCMV chemokine r129 in promoting cellular migration and in accelerating transplant vascular sclerosis (TVS) in our rat heart transplant model. We determined that r129 protein is released into culture …

Cilostazol Prevents Endothelin-Induced Smooth Muscle Constriction And Proliferation, Yoshifumi Kawanabe, Maki Takahashi, Xingjian Jin, Shakila Abdul-Majeed, Andromeda M. Nauli, Youssef Sari, Surya M. Nauli

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Cilostazol is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor that has been shown to inhibit platelet activation. Endothelin is known to be the most potent endogenous growth promoting and vasoactive peptide. In patients and animal models with stroke, the level of circulating endothelin increases and complicates the recovery progress contributed by vascular constriction (an immediate pathology) and vascular proliferation (a long-term pathology). However, the effects of cilostazol on endothelin have not been explored. To demonstrate the dual-antagonizing effects of cilostazol on vasoconstriction and cell proliferation induced by endothelin, we used primary culture of mouse vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro, mouse femoral artery ex …

Molecular Mechanism Of Xy Gonadal Dysgenesis, Griendy Indig-Weingarten

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

One of the fundamentals of human sociology is the characterization of the people around us based on gender. We tend to think of gender as a strict binary system where the option is clear: boy or girl. Although society usually honors this dichotomy, biology allows more flexibility to the definition of male versus female. Estimates state that one in every 2000 births is one with a disorder of sex development (The Intersex Society of North America 2006). Some of the disorders are visually obvious while others are only discovered later on in life. Regardless of when the disease first becomes …

Blast-Induced Brain Injury: Influence Of Shockwave Components, Dexter V. Reneer

Theses and Dissertations--Neuroscience

Blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) has been described as the defining injury of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF). Previously, most blast injury research has focused on the effects of blast on internal, gas filled organs due to their increased susceptibility. However, due to a change in enemy tactics combined with better armor and front-line medical care, bTBI has become one of the most common injuries due to blast. Though there has been a significant amount of research characterizing the brain injury produced by blast, a sound understanding of the contribution of each component of the shockwave to the …

Determination Of Stabilogram Diffusion Analysis Coefficients And Invariant Density Analysis Parameters To Understand Postural Stability Associated With Standing On Anti-Fatigue Mats, Rahul Soangra, Thurmon E. Lockhart

Physical Therapy Faculty Articles and Research

Prolonged standing has been associated with loss of balance, onset of low back pain symptoms and development of fatigue in lower extremity muscles in working populations. Although so far, it is unknown how individuals’ postural stability is affected by standing on rigid versus cushioned platform but many industries are opting for anti-fatigue mats at workstations to reduce fall and injury related socio-economic cost. The goal of this study is to test SATECH's anti-fatigue mat for its effects on postural stability. A pilot test with seven healthy subjects (25–35 years old) has been conducted with a force plate to obtain kinetics …

Non-Invasive Fall Risk Assessment In Community Dwelling Elderly With Wireless Inertial Measurement Units, Thurmon E. Lockhart, Han T. Yeoh, Rahul Soangra, Manutchanok Jongprasithporn, Jian Zhang, Xuefang Wu, Arka Ghosh

Physical Therapy Faculty Articles and Research

Falls are among the most serious accidents among the elderly leading to increased injuries, reduced functioning and mortality. In 2009, about 2.2 million nonfatal fall injuries were reported among the elderly population (CDC, 2010). In this study, eleven community dwelling elderly (aged 65-84 years) participated in fall risk assessment camp at sterling senior center organized by Northern Virginia Fall Prevention Coalition (NVFPC). Three custom made wireless inertial measurement units (IMUs) were attached on trunk and both shanks. All participants performed postural and locomotor tasks such as sit-to-stand (STS) and timed up and go (TUG). Temporal and kinematic parameters were obtained. …

Group I Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors On Selective Cellular Subtypes In Epileptogenic Malformed Cortex, William Bruch

Theses and Dissertations

Cortical malformations from altered development are common causes of human epilepsy. The cellular mechanisms responsible for the epileptic state of cortex remain unclear and a significant portion of these cases do not respond to treatment. Previous electrophysiological recordings in the Jacobs lab in a rat polymicrogyria model indicated an increased response to group I metabotropic glutamate receptor agonists in the region adjacent to the malformation (PMZ). In addition there was a novel response in low threshold spiking (LTS) interneurons via mGluR5 activation. To determine whether cell specific expression of these receptors was altered in malformed cortex immunohistochemical stains were performed …

Maturation Of The Carotid Body Oxygen-Sensor During Rat Development, Julia Paulet

Browse all Theses and Dissertations

Carotid bodies (CB) are paired, oxygen-sensing organs located in the bifurcation of the carotid artery that act as peripheral chemoreceptors in the detection of hypoxic, hypercapnic and acidotic levels in the arterial blood. CBs respond to these fluctuations in blood gases by initiating firing of the carotid sinus nerve. This ultimately results in the appropriate ventilatory change to restore blood gases to their physiological levels. Studies have shown that the hypoxic response of the carotid body in juvenile mammals is low, but as maturation occurs this response is strengthened and clearly exhibited in adults. One theory suggests mitochondria play a …