Medicine and Health Sciences Commons^™

Investigating The Influence Of Environmental Factors On The Incidence Of Renal Disease With Compositional Data Analysis Using Balances, Jennifer M. Mckinley, Ute Mueller, Peter M. Atkinson, Ulrich Ofterdinger, Chloe Jackson, Siobhan F. Cox, Rory Doherty, Damian Fogarty, J. J. Egozcue, V. Pawlowsky-Glahn

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

This research uses an urban soil geochemistry database of elemental concentration to examine the potential relationship between Standardised Incidence Rates (SIRs) of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) of uncertain aetiology (CKDu), and cumulative low level geogenic and diffuse anthropogenic contamination of soils with PTEs. A compositional data analysis approach was applied to determine the elemental balance(s) of the geochemical data showing the greatest association with CKDu. The research concludes that both anthropogenic and geogenic factors may be contributing influences to explain high incidences of CKDu, up to 12 times greater in some Super Output Areas (SOAs) than would be expected for …

The Effect Of Training With Weightlifting Catching Or Pulling Derivatives On Squat Jump And Countermovement Jump Force-Time Adaptations, Timothy J. Suchomel, Shana M. Mckeever, John J. Mcmahon, Paul Comfort

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) force-time curve characteristics following 10 weeks of training with either load-matched weightlifting catching (CATCH) or pulling derivatives (PULL) or pulling derivatives that included force- and velocity-specific loading (OL). Twenty-five resistance-trained men were randomly assigned to the CATCH, PULL, or OL groups. Participants completed a 10 week, group-specific training program. SJ and …

Alterations In Adiponectin, Leptin, Resistin, Testosterone, And Cortisol Across Eleven Weeks Of Training Among Division One Collegiate Throwers: A Preliminary Study, W. Guy Hornsby, G. Gregory Haff, Dylan G. Suarez, Michael W. Ramsey, N. Travis Triplett, Justin P. Hardee, Margaret E. Stone, Michael H. Stone

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Cytokine and hormone concentrations can be linked to the manipulation of training variables and to subsequent alterations in performance. Subjects: Nine D-1 collegiate throwers and 4 control subjects participated in this preliminary and exploratory report. Methods: Hormone (testosterone (T) and cortisol (C)) and adipokine (adiponectin, leptin, and resistin) measurements were taken at weeks 1, 7, and 11 for the throwers and weeks 1 and 11 for the control group. …

The Effects Of Lateral Bounds On Post-Activation Potentiation Of Change-Of-Direction Speed Measured By The 505 Test In College-Aged Men And Women, Ashley J. Orjalo, Robert G. Lockie, Katherine Balfany, Samuel J. Callaghan

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Forty recreationally-trained individuals completed four testing sessions to determine whether lateral bounds (LB) or weighted lateral bounds enhanced change-of-direction (COD) speed measured by the 505 COD speed test. Session 1 included vertical jump and lateral bound (LB) testing to measure power. Sessions 2-4 involved three randomized conditioning activities (CA): 3 × 5 LB; 3 × 5 weighted LB (10% body mass provided by a weighted vest); and a control condition (4-min rest). The 505 COD speed test was performed 5- and 2.5-min pre-CA, and ~15 s, 4, 8, 12, and 16 min post-CA. A 3 × 6 repeated measures analysis …

Behind The Therapy Door: What Is “Usual Care” Aphasia Therapy In Acute Stroke Management?, Emily Brogan, Erin Godecke, Natalie Ciccone

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Background:

Usual care is the term used to describe everyday practice in the management of a client within a profession. The knowledge of the tasks used in therapy and key therapeutic processes used within these treatments, provides critical information about if and how the therapy works. The Very Early Rehabilitation in SpEech Randomised Controlled Trial (VERSE RCT) had three arms with therapists within the intensive Usual Care-Plus arm (UC-Plus) providing daily direct aphasia therapy at their discretion for 20 sessions.

Aims:

To describe usual care aphasia treatment provided in the Usual Care-Plus arm of VERSE RCT.

Methods and Procedures:

One …

Low-Threshold Motor Units Can Be A Pain During Experimental Muscle Pain, Ricardo N.O. Mesquita, Jakob Škarabot, Gregory E.P. Pearcey

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Neural control of muscle force while experiencing muscle pain is not fully understood yet. The idea of a differential modulation of the activity across the entire motor unit (MU) pool is highly attractive. However, while lower discharge rates of MUs during low‐force contractions in the presence of pain have been previously observed, much uncertainty remains regarding alterations of the firing behaviour of higher‐threshold MUs.

Measuring The ‘Dose’ Of Person-Centred Care In Aged Care: Development Of Staff And Family Questionnaires, Davina Porock, Junxin Li, Yu-Ping Chang

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Aims: To develop a theoretically and psychometrically sound instrument to measure the ‘dose’ of person-centred care practice in long-term care.

Background: Although person-centred care has been adopted for long-term care across the world, there is a lack of theory-based instruments to measure its impact. Two questionnaires were developed to measure person-centred care from the perspectives of staff and family based on current person-centred care frameworks: Kitwood, Nolan, and Eden Alternative.

Methods: Phase I: literature review and focus groups identified potential items for the questionnaires. Phase II: academic experts, local staff, and family members of residents assessed content validity. Phase III: …

‘Ward For The Day’: A Case Study Of Extended Immersive Ward-Based Simulation, Hugh Davies, Rebecca Schultz, Deb Sundin, Elisabeth Jacob

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Background: Simulation is an important teaching strategy in the preparation of nursing students for professional practice. The focus of simulation has shifted from single patient encounters to multiple case studies provoking immersion in all the activities that are regularly performed on the ward. Extended immersive simulation cannot replicate completely the stresses of working on a ‘real’ ward, but it does provide a safe environment for students to practice the role of being a registered nurse. Objective: To evaluate satisfaction associated with student experiences of mentorship by industry partners, self-reflection on performance, and responses to clinical situations following an episode of …

Comparison Between High- And Low-Intensity Eccentric Cycling Of Equal Mechanical Work For Muscle Damage And The Repeated Bout Effect, Georgios Mavropalias, Tomoko Koeda, Oliver R. Barley, Wayne C. K. Poon, Aiden J. Fisher, Anthony J. Blazevich, Kazunori Nosaka

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Purpose: We compared high- and low-intensity eccentric cycling (ECC) with the same mechanical work for changes in muscle function and muscle soreness, and examined the changes after subsequent high-intensity ECC.

Methods: Twenty men performed either high-intensity ECC (1 min × 5 at 20% of peak power output: PPO) for two bouts separated by 2 weeks (H–H, n = 11), or low-intensity (4 min × 5 at 5% PPO) for the first and high-intensity ECC for the second bout (L–H, n = 9). Changes in indirect muscle damage markers were compared between groups and bouts.

Results: At 24 h after the …

Which Are The Nutritional Supplements Used By Beach-Volleyball Athletes? A Cross-Sectional Study At The Italian National Championship, Stefano Amatori, Davide Sisti, Fabrizio Perroni, Samuel Impey, Michela Lantignotti, Marco Gervasi, Sabrina Donati Zeppa, Marco B. Rocchi

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Beach volleyball is an intermittent team sport played under high temperature and humidity. Given that some nutritional supplements can enhance sports performance, this study aimed to evaluate the quantity and the heterogeneity of the nutritional supplementation practices of amateur (n = 69) and professional (n = 19) beach volley athletes competing in the Italian National Championship; an online form was used to collect data about the supplementation habits. The latent class analysis was used to find sub-groups characterised by different habits regarding supplements consumption. The most frequently used supplements (more than once a week) are vitamins B and C (39.2% …

Unilateral And Bilateral Lower-Body Resistance Training Does Not Transfer Equally To Sprint And Change Of Direction Performance, Brendyn B. Appleby, Stuart J. Cormack, Robert U. Newton

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Given maximal strength can be developed using bilateral or unilateral resistance training, the purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude of transfer of unilateral or bilateral resistance training to sprint and change of direction (COD) performance. Thirty-three trained participants (average training age = 5.4 ± 2.9 years and 1 repetition maximum [1RM] 90° squat = 177.6 ± 26.7 kg) completed either a bilateral group (BIL, n = 13), unilateral (UNI, n = 10), or comparison (COM, n = 10) 18-week randomized controlled training design. Training involved 2 lower-body, volume-load-matched resistance sessions per week (6-8 sets × 4-8 reps …

Barriers To Occupational Heat Stress Risk Adaptation Of Mining Workers In Ghana, Victor Fannam Nunfam, Kwadwo Adusei-Asante, Kwasi Frimpong, Eddie John Van Etten, Jacques Oosthuizen

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Increasing temperature and climate warming impacts are aggravating the vulnerability of workers to occupational heat stress. Adaptation and social protection strategies have become crucial to enhance workers’ health, safety, productive capacity and social lives. However, the effective implementation of work-related heat stress adaptation mechanisms appears to be receiving little attention. This study assessed the barriers to occupational heat stress adaptation and social protection strategies of mining workers in Ghana. Based on a mixed methods approach, focus group discussions and questionnaires were used to elicit data from 320 mining workers. Workers’ adaptation strategies (water intake, wearing loose and light-coloured clothing, participating …

Effects Of Caffeine On Neuromuscular Function In A Non-Fatigued State And During Fatiguing Exercise, Ricardo N. O. Mesquita, Neil J. Cronin, Heikki Kyröläinen, Jukka Hintikka, Janne Avela

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

New Findings: What is the central question of the study? What are the effects of caffeine on neuromuscular function in a non-fatigued state and during fatiguing exercise? What is the main finding and its importance? In a non-fatigued state, caffeine decreased the duration of the silent period evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Caffeine-induced reduction of inhibitory mechanisms in the central nervous system before exercise was associated with an increased performance. Individuals who benefit from caffeine ingestion may experience lower perception of effort during exercise and an accelerated recovery of M-wave amplitude postfatigue. This study elucidates the mechanisms of action of …

Assessment Of A Novel Algorithm To Determine Change-Of-Direction Angles While Running Using Inertial Sensors, Aaron Balloch, Mahir Meghji, Robert U. Newton, Nicolas H. Hart, Jason A. Weber, Iftekhar Ahmad, Daryoush Habibi

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The ability to detect and quantify change-of-direction (COD) movement may offer a unique approach to load-monitoring practice. Validity and reliability of a novel algorithm to calculate COD angles for predetermined COD movements ranging from 45 to 180° in left and right directions was assessed. Five recreationally active men (age: 29.0 ± 0.5 years; height: 181.0 ± 5.6 cm; and body mass: 79.4 ± 5.3 kg) ran 5 consecutive predetermined COD trials each, at 4 different angles (45, 90, 135, and 180°), in each direction. Participants were fitted with a commercially available microtechnology unit where inertial sensor data were extracted and …

Enzymatically Modified Isoquercitrin Improves Endothelial Function In Volunteers At Risk Of Cardiovascular Disease, Nicola P. Bondonno, Catherine P. Bondonno, Natalie C. Ward, Richard J. Woodman, Jonathan M. Hodgson

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

A higher intake of food rich in flavonoids such as quercetin can reduce the risk of CVD. Enzymatically modified isoquercitrin (EMIQ®) has a bioavailability 17-fold higher than quercetin aglycone and has shown potential CVD moderating effects in animal studies. The present study aimed to determine whether acute ingestion of EMIQ® improves endothelial function, blood pressure (BP) and cognitive function in human volunteers at risk of CVD. Twenty-five participants (twelve males and thirteen females) with at least one CVD risk factor completed this randomised, controlled, crossover study. In a random order, participants were given EMIQ® (2 mg aglycone equivalent)/kg body weight …

A Concept Analysis Of Psychological Distress In Parents Related To Diabetes Management In Children And Adolescents, Diana Arabiat, Mohammad Al Jabery, Lisa Whitehead

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Purpose: To report a concept analysis of parents' psychological distress in the context of diabetes management among children and adolescents. A clear understanding of the possible impact of diabetes management on parents will help to inform how nurses can work with parents to support glycaemic control in children and adolescents.

Design and Method: Concept analysis using Walker and Avant's eight-stage approach was used as a guiding framework. PubMed, OVID (CINAHL, Medline, PsychInfo), the Cochrane library and the Joanna Briggs library were searched for the past 50 years.

Results: Thirty-three studies provided data for the concept analysis. Attributes included difficulty coping, …

Association Of Flavonoids And Flavonoid-Rich Foods With All-Cause Mortality: The Blue Mountains Eye Study, Nicola P. Bondonno, Joshua R. Lewis, Lauren C. Blekkenhorst, Catherine P. Bondonno, John H. C. Shin, Kevin D. Croft, Richard J. Woodman, Germaine Wong, Wai H. Lim, Bamini Gopinath, Victoria M. Flood, Joanna Russell, Paul Mitchell, Jonathan M. Hodgson

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Background: Higher intakes of flavonoids provide health benefits, however, the importance of each flavonoid class and which population groups may receive the greatest protection from higher flavonoid intake warrants further investigation.

Objective: To explore the associations of flavonoid and flavonoid-rich wholefood intakes with all-cause mortality and the moderating effects of early mortality risk factors.

Design: The study included 2349 participants of The Blue Mountains Eye Study, with a mean ± SD age at baseline of 64.7 ± 9.2 years. Flavonoid intake was calculated from baseline food frequency questionnaires using US Department of Agriculture food composition databases. Associations were examined using …

Rankl/Rank Promotes The Migration Of Gastric Cancer Cells By Interacting With Egfr, Xing Wan, Yongxi Song, Honghong Fang, Ling Xu, Xiaofang Che, Shuo Wang, Xiaomeng Zhang, Lingyun Zhang, Ce Li, Yibo Fan, Kezuo Hou, Zhi Li, Xueqing Wang, Yunpeng Liu, Xiujuan Qu

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

BACKGROUND: The incidence and mortality rates of gastric cancer (GC) rank in top five among all malignant tumors. Chemokines and their receptor-signaling pathways reportedly play key roles in the metastasis of malignant tumor cells. Receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor family, with strong chemokine-like effects. Some studies have pointed out that the RANKL/RANK pathway is vital for the metastasis of cancer cells, but the specific mechanisms in GC remain poorly understood. RESULTS: This study reports original findings in cell culture models and in patients with GC. Flow cytometry and western …

Using Velocity To Predict The Maximum Dynamic Strength In The Power Clean, G. Gregory Haff, Amador Garcia-Ramos, Lachlan P. James

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The primary aim of the present study was to examine the commonly performed training exercise for athlete preparation. Twenty-two recreationally trained males (age: 26.3 ± 4.1 y, height: 1.80 ± 0.07 m; body mass (BM): 87.01 ± 13.75 kg, 1-repetitoon maximum(1-RM)/BM: 0.90 ± 0.19 kg) participated in the present study. All subjects had their 1-RM power clean tested with standard procedures. On a separate testing day, subjects performed three repetitions at 30% and 45%, and two repetitions at 70% and 80% of their 1-RM power clean. During all trials during both sessions, peak velocity (PV) and mean velocity (MV) were …

Document Analysis Of Exertional Heat Illness Policies And Guidelines Published By Sports Organisations In Victoria, Australia, Prasanna J. Gamage, Caroline F. Finch, Lauren V. Fortington

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Objectives To conduct a document and content analysis of exertional heat illness (EHI)-related documents published by sports organisations in Victoria, Australia, in order to determine their scope and evidence base against current international best practice recommendations. Methods A qualitative document and content analysis. Official documents relating to EHI were identified through a search of 22 Victorian sport organisation websites, supplemented by a general internet search. The content of these documents was evaluated against recommendations presented in three current international position statements on prevention and management of EHI. Results A range of document types addressing EHI were identified (n= 25), including …

Autoregulation In Resistance Training: Addressing The Inconsistencies, Leon Greig, Ben Hayden Stephens Hemingway, Rodrigo R. Aspe, Kay Cooper, Paul Comfort, Paul A. Swinton

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

© 2020, The Author(s). Autoregulation is a process that is used to manipulate training based primarily on the measurement of an individual’s performance or their perceived capability to perform. Despite being established as a training framework since the 1940s, there has been limited systematic research investigating its broad utility. Instead, researchers have focused on disparate practices that can be considered specific examples of the broader autoregulation training framework. A primary limitation of previous research includes inconsistent use of key terminology (e.g., adaptation, readiness, fatigue, and response) and associated ambiguity of how to implement different autoregulation strategies. Crucially, this ambiguity in …

What Do We Know About The Nexus Between Culture, Age, Gender And Health Literacy? Implications For Improving The Health And Well-Being Of Young Indigenous Males, Anthony Merlino, James A. Smith, Mick Adams, Jason Bonson, Richard Osborne, Barry Judd, Murray Drummond, David Aanundsen, Jesse Fleay, Benjamin Christie

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Health literacy, although diversely defined, refers to the abilities, relationships and external environments required for people to successfully promote health. Existing research suggests that health literacy is related to health inequities, including individual and community capacity to navigate health. A diverse range of factors shape health literacy abilities and environments, especially culture, gender and age. However, the nexus between these variables and their cumulative impact on health literacy development remains largely unexplored. Commentary that explores these dynamics among young Indigenous males is particularly scant. In turn, strategies to bridge health equity gaps have been obscured. This article brings together disparate …

Does Providing Pill Testing At Festivals Increase Intention To Use Ecstasy?, Sherri Lee Murphy

Theses : Honours

Calls to provide sanctioned pill testing (drug checking) at music festivals has met with resistance from most Australian governments due to a concern that such services would increase use of ecstasy and other drugs. To address an important gap in current knowledge, I investigated how a pill testing service might influence intention to use ecstasy. I also drew from the Theory of Planned Behaviour to examine what determinants of behaviour predict intention to use a pill testing service. Music festival attendees (N = 247) were presented with three hypothetical pill testing scenarios: The current legal circumstance where consumers only …

The Impact Of Singing On Pulmonary Function And Quality Of Life In Patients With Muscular Dystrophy, Mia Simonette

Theses : Honours

Muscular dystrophy is a congenital disorder that results in progressive deterioration of muscle strength and function. The genetic disorder is caused by the absence of dystrophin protein which helps to keep muscle cells together, the absence of this protein causes muscles to become weak and fragile. Despite impairment of motor function and muscle strength, a major issue is the progressive impact on the respiratory muscles. Weak pulmonary function can lead to secondary issues such as atelectasis, decreased lung compliance, repeated infections, ineffective cough and ventilation-perfusion during sleep1. Respiratory failure is said to be the most common cause of death in …

The Impact Of A Residential Camp On Grandchildren Raised By Grandparents: Grandparents’ Perspectives, J. Dare, R. Marquis, E. Wenden, S. Gopi, D. A. Coall

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

This research aimed to investigate grandparents’ perspectives on the impact of Leadership and Respite Camps, designed for children being raised by their grandparents, on their grandchildren. In-depth interviews were conducted with 34 grandparents whose grandchildren had participated in 1 of 3 camps held between September 2018 and January 2019, in Perth and the south-west of Western Australia. Findings highlighted how grandcarers’ perceived the camps created unique opportunities for grandchildren to share their experiences in a safe and supportive environment. Grandparents reported significant psychosocial benefits to their grandchild, including feeling they fitted in with their peers and were not alone in …

Tactile Discrimination, Praxis And Cognitive Impulsivity In Adhd Children: A Cross-Sectional Study, Dulce Romero-Ayuso, David Maciver, Janet Richmond, Sara Jorquera-Cabrera, Luis Garra-Palud, Carmen Zabala-Baños, Abel Toledano-González, Jose-Matias Triviño-Juárez

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Background: The study of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has traditionally focused on deficit of inhibitory control and cognitive impulsivity. However, the pathophysiology of ADHD has also been associated with the somatosensory cortex. The aim of this study was to explore if there were differences in tactile discrimination and praxis between neurotypical and ADHD children and whether these differences could be explained by cognitive impulsivity. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted. The sample comprised 74 children aged 7 to 11 years divided in two groups: 43 with neurotypical development, 31 with ADHD. To assess tactile discrimination, the finger localization and …

Static Stretch And Dynamic Muscle Activity Induce Acute Similar Increase In Corticospinal Excitability, Jules Opplertid, Christos Paizis, Athina Papitsa, Anthony J. Blazevich, Carole Cometti, Nicolas Babault

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Even though the acute effects of pre-exercise static stretching and dynamic muscle activity on muscular and functional performance have been largely investigated, their effects on the corticospinal pathway are still unclear. For that reason, this study examined the acute effects of 5×20 s of static stretching, dynamic muscle activity and a control condition on spinal excitability, corticospinal excitability and plantar flexor neuromuscular properties. Fifteen volunteers were randomly tested on separate days. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied to investigate corticospinal excitability by recording the amplitude of the motorevoked potential (MEP) and the duration of the cortical silent period (cSP). Peripheral nerve …

Importance Of Vitamin D In The Antenatal Period For Maternal Well-Being, Gemma Jarvis, Sadie Geraghty

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Vitamin D deficiency is widely recognised as a major public health issue around the world; and is essential for optimal development and strengthening of the musculoskeletal system including the prevention of conditions such as osteoporosis, osteopenia and rickets. The association between vitamin D and childhood rickets has led to the fortification of food sources and consequently the eradication of the rickets disease. Vitamin D levels are of particular importance for pregnant women, especially for the development of the bone and muscle development of the fetus. In the last decade there has been a substantial increase in the incidence of vitamin …

Long-Term Strength Adaptation: A 15-Year Analysis Of Powerlifting Athletes, Christopher Latella, Wei-Peng Teo, Jemima Spathis, Daniel Van Den Hoek

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Strength is a fundamental component of athletic performance and development. This investigation examined the long-term strength development of powerlifting (PL) athletes. The rate of strength gain/day was assessed in 1897 PL athletes (F = 626, M = 1,271) over a 15-year period (2003–2018). Independent T-tests explored sex differences in baseline absolute (kg) and relative strength (kg·body mass⁻¹ [bm]) recorded from the first competition, and strength gain/day (kg·d⁻¹). Analyses based on initial strength quartiles were conducted using one-way analysis of variances with significance set at p < 0.05. Bivariate correlational analysis tested for relationships between strength gain/day and baseline strength, the number of competitions, and mean days between competitions. Males had greater absolute (M: 513.3 ± 99.8 kg, F: 289.4 ± 55.7 kg, p < 0.001) and relative (M: 5.89 ± 1.04 kg·bm⁻¹, F: 4.27 ± 0.85 kg·bm⁻¹, p < 0.001) strength at baseline. Overall, strength gain/day (F: 0.12 ± 0.69 kg·d^{−1 …}

Cyp1a2 Genotype And Acute Effects Of Caffeine On Resistance Exercise, Jumping, And Sprinting Performance, Jozo Grgic, Craig Pickering, David J. Bishop, Brad J. Schoenfeld, Pavle Mikulic, Zeljko Pedisic

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Background: It has been suggested that polymorphisms within CYP1A2 impact inter-individual variation in the response to caffeine. The purpose of this study was to explore the acute effects of caffeine on resistance exercise, jumping, and sprinting performance in a sample of resistance-trained men, and to examine the influence of genetic variation of CYP1A2 (rs762551) on the individual variation in responses to caffeine ingestion. Methods: Twenty-two men were included as participants (AA homozygotes n = 13; C-allele carriers n = 9) and were tested after the ingestion of caffeine (3 mg/kg of body mass) and a placebo. Exercise performance was assessed …