Agricultural Science Commons^™

Natural Enemies Of The Coccinellidae: Parasites, Pathogens, And Parasitoids, E. W. Riddick, T. E. Cottrell, K. A. Kidd

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

We review aspects of the life histories of representative enemies of coccinellids (both entomophagous and phytophagous species) and expose both potential and real effects that they have on life parameters of their hosts. Lady beetles are attacked by a variety of natural enemies (bacteria, fungi, mites, nematodes, protozoa, wasps, flies). Few of these enemies have the ability to alter significantly the population dynamics of their hosts. This review should encourage further research to help define the role of natural enemies in the population dynamics of coccinellids. Ultimately, the conservation of beneficial lady beetles and the management of nuisance and pestiferous …

Coccinellidae As Predators Of Mites: Stethorini In Biological Control, David J. Biddinger, Donald D. Weber, Larry A. Hull

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The Stethorini are unique among the Coccinellidae in specializing on mites (principally Tetranychidae) as prey. Consisting of 90 species in two genera, Stethorus and Parasthethorus, the tribe is practically cosmopolitan. The Stethorini are found in a diverse range of habitats, including many agricultural systems such as pome and stone fruits, brambles, tree nuts, citrus, avocadoes, bananas, papaya, palms, tea, cassava, maize, strawberries, vegetables, and cotton, as well as ornamental plantings, grasslands, forests, and heathlands. Tetranychid mite outbreaks became common in many agricultural systems only after World War II, when widespread use of broad-spectrum insecticides increased. Stethorini were initially appreciated …

Visualization Of Biomass Solubilization And Cellulose Regeneration During Ionic Liquid Pretreatment Of Switchgrass, Seema Singh, Blake A. Simmons, Kenneth P. Vogel

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Auto-fluorescent mapping of plant cell walls was used to visualize cellulose and lignin in pristine switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) stems to determine the mechanisms of biomass dissolution during ionic liquid pretreatment. The addition of ground switchgrass to the ionic liquid 1-n-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate resulted in the disruption and solubilization of the plant cell wall at mild temperatures. Swelling of the plant cell wall, attributed to disruption of inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonding between cellulose fibrils and lignin, followed by complete dissolution of biomass, was observed without using imaging techniques that require staining, embedding, and processing of biomass. Subsequent …

Should The Mirid, Eccritotarsus Catarinensis (Heteroptera: Miridae), Be Considered For Release Against Water Hyacinth In The United States Of America?, Julie A. Coetzee, Marcus J. Byrne, Martin P. Hill, Ted D. Center

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Between one and seven biological control agents have been released against water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) in at least 30 countries, with varied success. A mirid, Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) (Heteroptera: Miridae), the most recent agent released, is damaging to the plant on the African continent.

Spatial And Temporal Effects On Switchgrass Stands And Yield In The Great Plains, Marty R. Schmer, R. B. Mitchell, K. P. Vogel, Walter H. Schacht, David B. Marx

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is being developed into a perennial, herbaceous, cellulosic feedstock crop for use in temperate regions of the USA. Information on spatial and temporal variation for stands and biomass yield among and within fields in large agroecoregions is not available. Spatial and temporal variation information is needed to model feedstock availability for biorefineries. In this 5-yr study, the spatial and temporal variation for biomass yield and stands was determined among and within 10 fields located in North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Switchgrass fields were managed for bioenergy from 2000 to 2004 for the Nebraska locations …

Letter From The Dean, Lalit Verma

Discovery, The Student Journal of Dale Bumpers College of Agricultural, Food and Life Sciences

No abstract provided.

Symbiotic Effects Of The Fungus Glomus Sp. On Chromium(Iii), Chromium(Vi), And Lead(Ii) Uptake By Mesquite (Prosopis Sp.): A Novel Method To Remediate Heavy Metals, Jack A. Arias

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

The indiscriminate disposal of lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr) containing wastes has resulted in a detrimental impact on environmental health. Lead and Cr are in the EPA priority list due to their degree of toxicity on humans, animals, plants, and other living organisms. The removal of toxic wastes involves technologies that are expensive, sometimes incomplete, and could represent health hazards. In addition, site restoration after contaminant removal encompasses time and technological resources. Phytoremediation, the use of plants alone or associated with microorganisms, represents a potentially cost-effective option in the long term management of contaminated sites. Various plants known as "hyperaccumulators" …

Pumpkin Variety Performance With And Without Treatment For Powdery Mildew In Northern Indiana, 2008, Elizabeth T. Maynard

Purdue Fruit and Vegetable Research Reports

"Pumpkins for decorative use are grown on more than 4000 acres in Indiana. Combined acreage in Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Ohio represents about a quarter of pumpkins grown for decorative use in the U.S. Successful pumpkin production requires the use of cultivars that yield well and produce pumpkins of the size, shape, color, and quality demanded by the market. Genetic resistance to the fungal disease powdery mildew is present in some varieties. This trial was designed to evaluate performance of pumpkin varieties in northern Indiana with and without treatment for powdery mildew. The trial included twelve jack-o-lantern size pumpkins, two …

On-Farm Evaluation Of Tomato Cultivars For Disease Resistance, 2008, Elizabeth Maynard, Butch Zandstra, Dan Egel

Purdue Fruit and Vegetable Research Reports

"Bacterial spot of tomatoes (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria) causes lesions on leaves, stems and fruit. Under conditions of hot, humid, rainy weather, defoliation can result in a loss of yield. In addition, lesions on fruit result in a direct loss of marketability. This disease is managed primarily with applications of fixed copper bactericides, crop rotations, greenhouse sanitation, and healthy seed/transplants. Even in properly managed commercial fields, however, bacterial spot can cause yield losses. Although there are no varieties with complete resistance to bacterial spot, we report here the results of an on-farm trial that indicates some varieties may have partial …

Supersweet Sweet Corn Cultivar Evaluation For Northern Indiana, 2008, Elizabeth T. Maynard

Midwest Vegetable Trial Reports

"Indiana growers harvested sweet corn for fresh market sales from 5,400 acres in 2007, according to the Indiana Agricultural Statistics Service. Average yield was 85 cwt/A (202 crates/A) and the crop had a total value of $10.5 million. Sweet corn fields are located throughout the state. In northern Indiana, bicolor corn is most commonly grown. Varieties with improved eating quality are of interest to both producers and consumers. Producers are also interested in yield, ear size, appearance, and agronomic characteristics. This paper reports on 15 sweet corn cultivars with sh2 endosperm, including varieties described as supersweet and augmented supersweet, that …

Pumpkin Variety Performance With And Without Treatment For Powdery Mildew In Northern Indiana, 2008, Elizabeth T. Maynard

Midwest Vegetable Trial Reports

"Pumpkins for decorative use are grown on more than 4000 acres in Indiana. Combined acreage in Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Ohio represents about a quarter of pumpkins grown for decorative use in the U.S. Successful pumpkin production requires the use of cultivars that yield well and produce pumpkins of the size, shape, color, and quality demanded by the market. Genetic resistance to the fungal disease powdery mildew is present in some varieties. This trial was designed to evaluate performance of pumpkin varieties in northern Indiana with and without treatment for powdery mildew. The trial included twelve jack-o-lantern size pumpkins, two …

Sugar-Enhanced Sweet Corn Cultivar Evaluation For Northern Indiana, 2008, Elizabeth T. Maynard

Midwest Vegetable Trial Reports

"Indiana growers harvested sweet corn for fresh market sales from 5,400 acres in 2007, according to the Indiana Agricultural Statistics Service. Average yield was 85 cwt/A (202 crates/A) and the crop had a total value of $10.5 million. Sweet corn fields are located throughout the state. In northern Indiana, bicolor corn is most commonly grown. Varieties with improved eating quality are of interest to both producers and consumers. Producers are also interested in yield, ear size, appearance, and agronomic characteristics. This paper reports on 12 sugar enhanced and synergistic sweet corn cultivars that were evaluated at the Pinney-Purdue Agricultural Center …

On-Farm Evaluation Of Tomato Cultivars For Disease Resistance, 2008, Elizabeth Maynard, Butch Zandstra, Dan Egel

Midwest Vegetable Trial Reports

"Bacterial spot of tomatoes (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria) causes lesions on leaves, stems and fruit. Under conditions of hot, humid, rainy weather, defoliation can result in a loss of yield. In addition, lesions on fruit result in a direct loss of marketability. This disease is managed primarily with applications of fixed copper bactericides, crop rotations, greenhouse sanitation, and healthy seed/transplants. Even in properly managed commercial fields, however, bacterial spot can cause yield losses. Although there are no varieties with complete resistance to bacterial spot, we report here the results of an on-farm trial that indicates some varieties may have partial …

Sugar-Enhanced Sweet Corn Cultivar Evaluation For Northern Indiana, 2008, Elizabeth T. Maynard

Purdue Fruit and Vegetable Research Reports

"Indiana growers harvested sweet corn for fresh market sales from 5,400 acres in 2007, according to the Indiana Agricultural Statistics Service. Average yield was 85 cwt/A (202 crates/A) and the crop had a total value of $10.5 million. Sweet corn fields are located throughout the state. In northern Indiana, bicolor corn is most commonly grown. Varieties with improved eating quality are of interest to both producers and consumers. Producers are also interested in yield, ear size, appearance, and agronomic characteristics. This paper reports on 12 sugar enhanced and synergistic sweet corn cultivars that were evaluated at the Pinney-Purdue Agricultural Center …

Supersweet Sweet Corn Cultivar Evaluation For Northern Indiana, 2008, Elizabeth T. Maynard

Purdue Fruit and Vegetable Research Reports

"Indiana growers harvested sweet corn for fresh market sales from 5,400 acres in 2007, according to the Indiana Agricultural Statistics Service. Average yield was 85 cwt/A (202 crates/A) and the crop had a total value of $10.5 million. Sweet corn fields are located throughout the state. In northern Indiana, bicolor corn is most commonly grown. Varieties with improved eating quality are of interest to both producers and consumers. Producers are also interested in yield, ear size, appearance, and agronomic characteristics. This paper reports on 15 sweet corn cultivars with sh2 endosperm, including varieties described as supersweet and augmented supersweet, that …

Identification Of Various Testicular Cell Populations In Pubertal And Adult Cockerels, J. Mucksová, J. P. Brillard, J. Hejnar, M. Poplštein, J. Kalina, M. Bakst, H. Yan, P. Trefil

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Precise identification of the male germinal stem cell population is important for their practical use in programs dedicated to the integration of exogenous genetic material in testicular tissues. In the present study, our aim was to identify germinal cell populations in the testes of pubertal and adult cockerels based on the detection of the nuclear DNA content by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and on the expression of the Dazl and Stra8 genes in singlecell suspensions of testicular tissues. Cells with a tetraploid DNA content (4c) represent a small and equal fraction of the total germinal cell population in both pubertal …

Molecular Diagnostic For Boll Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Based On Amplification Of Three Species-Specific Microsatellites, Kyung Seok Kim, Zofia Szendrei, Cesar Rodriguez-Saona, Phillip G. Mulder Jr., Thomas W. Sappington

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a serious pest of cultivated cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., in the Americas, and reinfestation of zones from which they have been eradicated is of perpetual concern. Extensive arrays of pheromone traps monitor for reintroductions, but occasionally the traps collect nontarget weevils that can be misidentified by scouts. For example, the congeneric pepper weevil, Anthonomus eugenii Cano, and other superficially similar weevils are attracted to components of the boll weevil lure or trap color. Although morphologically distinguishable by trained personnel, the potential for misidentification is compounded when captured weevils are dismembered …

Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus Genotypes Introduced To Argentina Are Closely Related To Isolates From The American Pacific Northwest And Australia, Drake C. Stenger, Roy French

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV) was first detected in Argentina in 2002. Comparison of 78 WSMV coat protein sequences revealed that three Argentine isolates were closely related to isolates from the American Pacific Northwest (APNW) and Australia. Complete sequences were determined for one Argentine isolate, four APNW isolates, and three additional isolates from other regions of the USA. Comparison of these eight new sequences with five previously sequenced isolates of WSMV confirmed close affinity of WSMV from Argentina with APNW isolates. Collectively, these results indicate concurrent establishment of the same WSMV lineage in both Argentina and Australia.

2009 Across-Breed Epd Table, Larry Kuehn, Mark Thallman

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The table of adjustment factors to be used to estimate across-breed expected progeny differences (AB-EPDs) for eighteen breeds was presented at the Beef Improvement Federation Annual Meeting in Sacramento, CA on May 2 (see attached Table 1). Across-breed adjustment factors have been calculated for growth traits and maternal milk since 1993. Adjustment factors for carcass traits have been calculated since 2008; to be included, breeds must have carcass data in the U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (USMARC) database and report their carcass EPDs on an actual carcass basis using an age-adjusted endpoint. Bulls of different breeds can be compared on …

Microsatellites Reveal Genetic Diversity In Rotylenchulus Reniformis Populations, R. S. Arias, Salliana R. Stetina, Jennifer L. Tonos, Jodi A. Scheffler, Brian E. Scheffler

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Rotylenchulus reniformis is the predominant parasitic nematode of cotton in the Mid South area of the United States. Although variable levels of infection and morphological differences have been reported for this nematode, genetic variability has been more elusive. We developed microsatellite-enriched libraries for R. reniformis, produced 1152 clones, assembled 694 corstigs, detected 783 simple sequence repeats (SSR) and designed 192 SSR-markers. The markers were tested on six R. reniformis cultures from four states, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Georgia, in the USA. Based oil performance we selected 156 SSR markers for R. reniformis from which 88 were polymorphic across the …

Wus And Stm-Based Reporter Genes For Studying Meristem Development In Poplar, Y. Bao, P. Dharmawardhana, R. S. Arias, M. B. Allen, C. Ma, Steven H. Strauss

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

We describe the development of a reporter system for monitoring meristem initiation in poplar using promoters of poplar homologs to the meristem-active regulatory genes WUSCHEL (WUS) and SHOOTMERISTEMLESS (STM). When ~3 kb of the 5' flanking regions of close homologs were used to drive expression of the GUSPlus gene, 50–60% of the transgenic events showed expression in apical and axillary meristems. However, expression was also common in other organs, including in leaf veins (40 and 46% of WUS and STM transgenic events, respectively) and hydathodes (56% of WUS transgenic events). Histochemical GUS staining of explants during callogenesis and shoot …

Particle Size Effects On The Quality Of Flour Tortillas Enriched With Whole Grain Waxy Barley, Naruemon Prasopsunwattana, Marfa Botero Omary, Elizabeth A. Arndt, Peter H. Cooke, Rolando A. Flores, Wallace Yokoyama, Ayako Toma, Sutida Chongcham, Sylvia P. Lee

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Wheat tortillas were enriched with whole barley flour (WBF) of different particle sizes including 237 µm (regular [RD. 131 µm (intermediate [IM]). and 68 µm (microground [MG], Topographical and fluorescent microstructure images of flours, doughs, and tortillas were examined, Flours and tortillas were analyzed for color, protein, ash, starch, moisture. and β-glucan content. Farinograph testing was conducted on the flour blends, Water activity and texture analyses of tortillas were conducted, A 9-point hedonic scale was used by 95 untrained panelists to evaluate tortilla appearance, color, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability, Two commercial products (CP) were included in …

A Novel Codominant Marker For Selection Of The Null Wx-B1 Allele In Wheat Breeding Programs, Mika Saito, Patricia Vrinten, Goro Ishikawa, Robert A. Graybosch, Toshiki Nakamura

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Waxy protein (granule-bound starch synthase I) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of amylose in endosperm tissue. The amylose content of wheat flour plays a significant role in determining Japanese udon noodle quality. Most wheat cultivars suitable for producing udon noodles have a low amylose level due to a lack of Wx-B1 protein conditioned by null Wx-B1 alleles. It was previously determined that the entire coding region of the wheat Wx-B1 gene is deleted in the most common null allele. However, the extent and breakpoints of the deletion have not been established. In this study, the position of the …

Toxicity Comparison Of Eight Repellents Against Four Species Of Female Mosquitoes, Julia W. Pridgeon, Ulrich R. Bernier, James J. Becnel

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The relative toxicities of 8 repellents (DMP, Rutgers 612, DEET, IR3535, Picardin, PMD, AI3-35765, and AI3-37220) were evaluated by topical application against females of Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, and An. albimanus. Based on 24-h LD₅₀ values, the most toxic repellent against all 4 mosquito species was AI3-37220, with values of 0.25, 0.20, 0.16, and 0.11 µg/mg for the listed 4 mosquito species, respectively. The least toxic of the 8 repellents tested was DMP, with LD₅₀ values of 5.40, 4.72, 2.50, and 1.83 µg/mg, respectively. Based on the 24-h LD₅₀ values, An. …

Fluid Fertilizer’S Role In Sustaining Soils Used For Bio-Fuels Production, John L. Kovar, Douglas Karlen

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Project Objectives:

1)To evaluate several S sources for corn grown on low organic matter soils
2)To investigate nutrient dynamics in a comprehensive tillage, nutrient management, and residue removal study.

Sulfur Response: Site Characteristics

• Eroded side slopes

• Loam/silt loam (Typic Haplaquolls)

• Corn after soybean

• N fertilizer applied at planting + spoke-whee UAN (155 lb N/A)

• Corn (Fontanelle 4693 planted 5/6/08, 32K plants/A

S Fertilizer Treatments

Control

30 lb S/A; 13-33-0-15S; 2x3

30 lb S/A; 21-0-0-24S; 2x3

30 lb S/A; 12-0-0-26S; 2x0

Reproductive Status Of Holstein And Jersey Cows In The United States, H. D. Norman, J. R. Wright, S. M. Hubbard, R. H. Miller, J. L. Hutchison

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Reproductive information since 1995 from the USDA national dairy database was used to calculate yearly Holstein and Jersey means for days to first breeding after calving (DFB), 70-d nonreturn rate, conception rate (CR), number of breedings per lactation (NB), interval between first and last breedings during the lactation, days to last breeding after calving (DLB), pregnancy rate (PR), calving interval (CI), and interval between consecutive breedings. Data were from nearly 20 million breedings during >8 million lactations of >5 million cows in >23,000 herds. Means were also calculated for some traits by parity and breeding number for both breeds and …

Effects Of Spontaneous Heating On Fiber Composition, Fiber Digestibility, And In Situ Disappearance Kinetics Of Neutral Detergent Fiber For Alfalfa-Orchardgrass Hays, W. K. Coblentz, P. C. Hoffman

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

During 2006 and 2007, forages from 3 individual hay harvests were utilized to assess the effects of spontaneous heating on concentrations of fiber components, 48-h neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility (NDFD), and in situ disappearance kinetics of NDF for large-round bales of mixed alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.). Over the 3 harvests, 96 large-round bales were made at preset bale diameters of 0.9, 1.2, or 1.5 m, and at moisture concentrations ranging from 9.3 to 46.6%. Internal bale temperatures were monitored daily during an outdoor storage period, reaching maxima (MAX) of 77.2°C and 1,997 heating degree …

A Whole-Genome Assembly Of The Domestic Cow, Bos Taurus, Aleksey V. Zimin, Arthur L. Delcher, Liliana Florea, David R. Kelley, Michael C. Schatz, Daniela Puiu, Finnian Hanrahan, Geo Pertea, Curtis P. Van Tassell, Tad S. Sonstegard, Guillaume Marçais, Michael Roberts, Poorani Subramanian, James A. Yorke, Steven. L Salzberg

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Background: The genome of the domestic cow, Bos Taurus, was sequenced using a mixture of hierarchical and whole-genome shotgun sequencing methods.

Results: We have assembled the 35 million sequence reads and applied a variety of assembly improvement techniques, creating an assembly of 2.86 billion base pairs that has multiple improvements over previous assemblies: it is more complete, covering more of the genome; thousands of gaps have been closed; many erroneous inversions, deletions, and translocations have been corrected; and thousands of single-nucleotide errors have been corrected. Our evaluation using independent metrics demonstrates that the resulting assembly is substantially more accurate …

Expression And Functional Characterization Of The Plant Antimicrobial Snakin-1 And Defensin Recombinant Proteins, Natalia Kovalskaya, Rosemarie W. Hammond

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

In this study, for the first time, functionally active, recombinant, cysteine-rich plant proteins snakin-1 (SN1) and defensin (PTH1) were expressed and purified using a prokaryotic expression system. The overall level of antimicrobial activities of SN1 and PTH1 produced in Escherichia coli was commensurate with that of the same proteins previously obtained from plant tissues. Both proteins exhibited strong antibacterial activity against the phytopathogenic bacterium Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus (50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) 1.5–8 lM) and antifungal activity against the phytopathogenic fungi Colletotrichum coccoides and Botrytis cinerea (IC₅₀ 5–14 lM). Significantly weaker activity was observed against Pseudomonas syringae …

Multiplex Real-Time Pcr For Detection, Identification And Quantification Of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter Solanacearum’ In Potato Plants With Zebra Chip, Wenbin Li, Jorge A. Abad, Ronald D. French-Monar, John Rascoe, Aimin Wen, Neil C. Gudmestad, Gary A. Secor, Ing-Ming Lee, Yongping Duan, Laurene Levy

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The new Liberibacter species, ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ (Lso) recently associated with potato/tomato psyllid-transmitted diseases in tomato and capsicum in New Zealand, was found to be consistently associated with a newly emerging potato zebra chip (ZC) disease in Texas and other southwestern states in the USA. A species-specific primer LsoF was developed for both quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and conventional PCR (cPCR) to detect and quantify Lso in infected samples. In multiplex qPCR, a plant cytochrome oxidase (COX)-based probe-primer set was used as a positive internal control for host plants, which could be used to reliably access the DNA extraction …