Kinesiology Commons^™

Evaluating The Pulse Of Exercise Programs: Developing And Validating The Intervention Usability Scale For Exercise (Iuse) To Enhance Implementation And Adherence, Anne Inger Mørtvedt, Eva Ageberg, Steven Elmer, Kevin Trewartha, Erich Petushek

Michigan Tech Publications

Background: Adherence to exercise interventions is often suboptimal, despite numerous studies documenting barriers and facilitators. Usability may be a critical yet underexplored determinant of adherence. This study aimed to develop and assess the psychometric properties of the Intervention Usability Scale for Exercise (IUSE). Methods: Item generation and content validation involved cognitive interviews and feedback from eight exercise intervention stakeholders and ten target users from the general public. Subsequently, 526 target users from University, Qualtrics and Prolific participant panels assessed exercise programs through an online survey. Dimensionality was assessed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), and bifactor models. …

The Effect Of Acute Hypoxia Exposure, With Exercise, On Bone Metabolic Biomarkers, Alyssa Bailly

Health, Exercise, and Sports Sciences ETDs

Hypoxic environments, resulting from decreased atmospheric partial pressure of oxygen, reduce oxygen availability in the blood and tissues, leading to a mismatch between supply and demand. This elicits several physiological adaptations and may influence bone metabolism. Although evidence suggests that hypoxia can modulate bone remodeling through hypoxia-inducible pathways, findings remain mixed, with most data derived from chronic hypoxic exposures in animal and cell culture models. Exercise, an essential stimulus for bone health, may exacerbate hypoxic stress; however, the skeletal response to acute hypoxic exposure combined with exercise remains unclear. We propose that intermittent exercise in hypoxia may increase negative markers …

Harnessing Mechanobiology Of Resident Stem Cells To Refine Cell Based Therapeutics, Dakota R. Kamm

WUSM Theses and Dissertations – All Programs

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are resident cells residing with many adult tissues such as adipose tissue and bone marrow that have the potency for multiple lineage differentiation as well as the capacity to secrete a litany of beneficial factors to maintain homeostasis and promote tissue repair. Since 1995, MSCs have been used therapeutically to treat a variety of conditions from osteoarthritis to heart disease to muscle pathologies. Great leaps have been made in improving MSC-based therapies through optimization of culture methods and select enrichment of cellular subpopulations. More recently, the physical microenvironment of tissue in vivo and culture conditions in …

The Mediating Effect Of Physical Activity On Mental Health Among Sexual Minority Adolescents During Covid-19, You Fu, Ryan D. Burns, Hayley Almes, Xiangren Yi, Nora Constantino

International Journal of Physical Activity and Health

Purpose: Adolescents identifying as a sexual minority frequently experience mental health issues exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Physical activity (PA) has numerous benefits for mental health and emotional development. The purpose of this study was to examine the mediating effect of PA on the association between sexual minority status and mental health among adolescents during COVID-19. Methods: A sample of adolescents (grades 9-12) completed the online Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey (ABES; N = 7677; 49.6% male) in 2021. The independent variable in this study was a recorded binary response item asking about sexual orientation. The dependent variable was a …

Associations Between Levels Of Physical Activity And Cognitive Health, Gemma Goldenbaum

Honors Theses

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between physical activity levels and executive function, specifically focusing on inhibitory control and working memory capacity. Though the benefits of exercise on brain health are well-documented, the extent of cognitive differences between sedentary individuals and elite student-athletes remains misunderstood. Eighty participants (ages 18–35) were categorized via the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) into sedentary, low, and advanced activity tiers. Participants completed computational assessments, including the Operation Span (OSPAN) task for working memory and Go/No-Go tasks to measure response inhibition and implicit associations. Preliminary results indicated significant differences in sedentary behavior, …

Exploring Exercise Motivation And Mental Well-Being In College Students, Elaine M. Lindesmith, Anqi Deng Dr

Health, Human Performance and Recreation Undergraduate Honors Theses

This study examined the relationship between physical activity, exercise motivation, and mental well-being among 48 undergraduate students at the University of Arkansas. Guided by Self-Determination Theory, the study used survey data to measure depression, anxiety, physical activity, and open-ended exercise motivation responses. Motivation responses were coded as autonomous or controlled.

Results showed that physical activity was weakly and negatively related to depression and anxiety, but these relationships were not statistically significant. There were also no significant differences in mental health between autonomous and controlled motivation groups, and motivation did not significantly predict mental health outcomes in regression analyses. Overall, the …

Influence Of Weekend Social Jetlag On Glucose Tolerance Testing, Ariana Khzarjyan, Srushti Wagh, Graham Mcginnis

Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences Student Research

Background: Circadian rhythms regulate physiological and metabolic functions across a 24-hour cycle. However, modern lifestyles often disrupt these rhythms. A common example is weekend schedule shifts, when people sleep and wake later than on weekdays, a phenomenon referred to as social jetlag (SJL).

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to; 1) determine whether chronic SJL leads to impaired glucose tolerance, and 2) determine if acute changes in glucose tolerance occur following a weekend of social jetlag (SJL).

Methods: Fifteen male C57BL/6 mice on a normal chow diet were used in this study. To model social jetlag (SJL), mice were …

More Than A Prescription: The Need For Behavioral Theory To Guide Exercise Interventions For Osteoarthritis - A Narrative Review, Christine Pellegrini, Lisa C. Carlesso, Daniel K. White

Faculty Publications

Objective

Design

Results

Low Energy Availability (Lea) And Its Relationship To Nutritional Status And Bone Health In Collegiate Athletes, Anthony Dempsey

UNH URC Open (2026 and after)

This project aims to identify low energy availability in a sample of collegiate athletes and explore the relationship with bone mineral density and nutrient deficiencies. Participants (n=3,407) were recruited from a northeast university and self-reported athlete status and physical activity via online questionnaire. Food records were used to calculate energy and nutrient intake. Anthropometrics including height, weight, body composition and bone mineral status were measured in duplicate. Energy availability (EA) was calculated as (Energy Intake (EI) -Exercising Energy Expenditure) (EEE)) /Fat Free Mass (FFM) (kg) and categorized as optimal (>45 kcal/kg FFM), subclinical, or clinically low (< 30 kcal/kg FFM). Fifteen percent of participants were characterized as athletes (club or division I varsity); mean EA was lower among athletes vs. nonathletes (17.90.7vs.21.90.3, p< .001). Males were more likely to have optimal EA status vs. females (8.8vs4.7%, p< .001). Most females (75.1%) were categorized as clinically LEA; 20.3% had subclinical LEA. Among men, athletes’ EA was similar to nonathletes (21.11.2vs22.20.5, p=.4); among females, athletes had lower EA vs. nonathletes (16.220.9vs21.70.3, p< .001). Males with clinically low EA were most likely to consume inadequate intakes of potassium, fiber, iron, and vitamin D (77.1,94.0,10.4 and 97.3%, respectively); similarly, females with clinically low EA, were most likely to consume inadequate intakes (81.9,87.6,88.3, and 99.5%, respectively). Bone z-scores were higher among athletes vs. non athletes (-.27±.06vs-.67±.02, p< .001) but were not different by EA status. Given the prevalence of LEA within the college athlete and nonathlete populations, further research and tailored nutritional education is needed for this at-risk population.

Social Influences On Exercise And Physical Activity, Domanick Speelman

Williams Honors College, Honors Research Projects

Background: Regular exercise plays a big role in maintaining an individual’s physical and mental health, preventing diseases, and improving overall well-being. A plethora of things can influence an individual’s exercise habits, for better or worse, including social, environmental, and familial contexts. This study described exercise and social influences among undergraduate college students. More specifically, this study described exercising habits (frequency, duration, type, etc.) as well as the role of social media, environmental conditions, and family support during a typical week of the academic semester.

Design: Cross-sectional, descriptive survey

Methods: A sample of 33 undergraduate students from a public university in …

Decreased Exercise-Induced Pulmonary Capillary Recruitment In Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension, David Langleben, Stylianos E. Orfanos, Benjamin D. Fox, Michele Giovinazzo, Magali Kaddis, John D. Catravas

Bioelectrics Publications

The human lung normally accommodates exercise-induced cardiac output increases mainly via recruitment of non-concomitantly perfused pulmonary capillaries. Recruitment is detectable by measuring the first-pass transpulmonary metabolism of ³H-benzoyl-Phe-Ala-Pro, providing an estimate of functional capillary surface area (FCSA). Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) results from luminal narrowing of small precapillary arterioles, reducing downstream perfused FCSA. We hypothesized that exercising PAH patients would not be able to recruit FCSA normally. We studied two patients with severe PAH. Despite exercising to maximal dyspnea, neither could recruit FCSA. These limited data are the first direct measurements of FCSA in exercising PAH patients.

Ultrasound-Derived Liver Composition And Metabolic Flexibility Under Exercise Stress, Rhodes Van Houten

All Master's Theses

Metabolic Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD) is characterized by abnormal liver fat accumulation in conjunction with metabolic syndromes. MAFLD affects 33% of individuals worldwide, though little is known about how increased liver fat impacts physiological responses to exercise. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between liver composition and metabolic flexibility during a graded exercise test.  Body composition was analyzed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Liver ultrasound was evaluated for echogenicity, where elevated mean gray volume (MGV) indicates abnormal liver tissue. Rates of fat (FATox) and carbohydrate (CHOox) oxidation (g/min), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and blood lactate concentrations ([LA^-], …

Host-Intrinsic Factors Determine Anti-Tumor Efficacy Of Exercise In Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Sumedha Pareek

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths with a low 5-year relative survival rate of approximately 13.3% for all stages combined. We have previously shown that exercise can improve quality of life and enhance functional capacity among patients with PDAC. Exercise induces a variety of changes in the tumor microenvironment with beneficial effects in several tumor types. However, our understanding of the clinical effects of exercise and the mechanisms that mediate anti-tumor effects are limited in pancreatic cancer.

In this project, using C57BL/6 mice from Taconic Biosciences (Tac) and Jackson Laboratories (Jax), we established a …

Ethnic Differences In Health-Related Quality Of Life, Physical Activity, And Health Locus Of Control, Kimberly Feiler

International Journal of Exercise Science

International Journal of Exercise Science 18(8): 1072-1085, 2025. https://doi.org/10.70252/STUM6367 This research aimed to better understand the differences in health-related quality of life (HRQoL: general health, physical functioning), physical activity (PA), and health locus of control (HLOC: internal, external-chance, external-powerful others, God) among various ethnic groups. The study’s sample included 185 individuals, 22 - 81 years of age, who were attending or employed by one of three religiously-affiliated higher education institutions during the 2020-2021 academic year. Participants voluntarily answered questions about their ethnic identity, HRQoL, PA level, and HLOC. To analyze the interaction of HRQoL, PA, and HLOC, a multiple regression …

Change In Free-Living Daily Steps Does Not Affect Vo2max Adaptation In Response To A Supervised Aerobic Walking Program In Females Ages 18-45, Catherine L. Jarrett, Brandon J. Sawyer, Wesley Tucker, Dharini M. Bhammar, Justin R. Ryder, Siddhartha Angadi, Glenn A. Gaesser

International Journal of Exercise Science

International Journal of Exercise Science 18(5): 852-863, 2025. We hypothesized that an increase in nonexercise physical activity (NEPA), assessed by daily steps outside of steps accrued during supervised exercise training sessions, would be positively correlated with the change in VO_2max. Females ages 18-45 yr (n = 44; 30 ± 7 yr; 67.7 ± 18.3 kg; 24.9 ± 6.4 kg/m²) completed 36 supervised training sessions on a motorized treadmill (3 sessions/week, 30 min/session) over 12 weeks, at 70% VO_2max (80% max heart rate). VO_2max was assessed at baseline, 4, 8, and 12 weeks, and …

Improving Glycemic Control Mechanisms By Electrical Muscle Stimulation, Jehu Narh Apaflo

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

Introduction: Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) has emerged as a promising intervention for improving metabolic health in sedentary individuals with overweight or obesity. Its capacity to induce muscle contraction without voluntary movement presents a viable alternative to traditional exercise, especially in mobility-limited populations. NMES may serve as a non-invasive alternative to traditional exercise, especially in high-risk populations who face elevated type 2 diabetes incidence linked to hyperglycemia, obesity, and inactivity. This study investigated the impact of NMES on glycemic control and metabolic health in a sedentary, predominantly Hispanic, overweight or obese population. Methods: This study examined the acute and long-term effects …

Novel Approaches To Combat Neuro-Degradation: Investigations Of Two Supplemental Strategies Aimed At Improving Warfighter Performance, Blaine Lints

Theses and Dissertations

This dissertation examines the efficacy of two distinct nutritional supplementation strategies for improving physical and/or cognitive performance under stress. The first study investigated the effects of 150 mg caffeine plus 150 mg theacrine ingestion in tactically trained individuals. Results indicated that the combination of caffeine and theacrine was associated with significant improvements in reaction time, accuracy, and measures of ocular control following high-intensity interval (HII) exercise. The HII exercise protocol consisted of ten repetitions of 60s high-intensity intervals (≥90% maximal oxygen uptake [VO_2max]) followed by 120s low-intensity intervals (~40% VO_2max) on a treadmill. These benefits were …

Improving Brain Health: Exercise As A Tool For Enhancing Executive Function And Reducing Stress In Older African Americans, Destiny Ellise Ramos

Theses, Dissertations and Culminating Projects

Older African American (AA) adults face disproportionately higher risk of stress and Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias (ADRD) compared to other racial and ethnic groups, yet they remain underrepresented in intervention-based research. Previous research has suggested aerobic exercise may reduce stress and benefit executive functioning, which is among the first cognitive domains to be affected in ADRD; however, no studies to date have directly tested the impact of aerobic vs. non-aerobic exercise in older AAs at high risk for developing ADRD. The current study evaluated the effects of a group-based cardio dance fitness (CDF) exercise intervention versus a strength, flexibility, …

Relationships Between Performance In The Frequency Speed Kick Test, Heart Rate Variability, And Body Composition In Amateur Muay Thai Fighters, Antonio Beira De Andrade Junior, Elena Marie Peixoto Ruthes De Andrade, Patrícia Dos Santos Vigário, Cesar Antonio Luchesa, João Eduardo De Azevedo Vieira, Igor Ramathur Telles De Jesus, Agnaldo Jose Lopes

International Journal of Exercise Science

International Journal of Exercise Science 18(6): 428-442, 2025. In martial arts, heart rate variability (HRV) measurements can potentially be used to assess injury risk and susceptibility to fatigue. Muay Thai uses the Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKT) to measure kick speed, but it is unknown whether better fitness results in improved autonomic function and body composition, which may affect athletic performance and recovery. We aimed to evaluate the correlations between FSKT, HRV, and body composition measures in amateur Muay Thai fighters. This is a cross-sectional study with 37 Muay Thai fighters. They underwent FSKT-10s and multiple FSKT to measure …

Age Of Anaerobic, Aerobic, And Skill-Based Olympic Athletes 1988 - 2024, Corban J. Ruiz, Iliana G. Hernandez, Edward K. Merritt

International Journal of Exercise Science

International Journal of Exercise Science 18(3): 404-414, 2025. The age at which athletes compete at a high-level provides understanding of human physiology, development, aging and skill refinement. The Olympics, with high-level performances across events with differing metabolic demands, provide unique data for analysis of optimal performance age given the type of performance required. The aim of this study was to classify Olympic events from 1988-2024 into aerobic, anaerobic, mixed, or skill, and compare male and female athlete ages in each classification. Events of maximal effort under 2-minutes duration were classified as anaerobic. Events longer than 5 minutes were classified as …

The Impacts Of Physical (In)Activity On Endothelial Function, Joel Ernest Harden

Rehabilitation Sciences Theses & Dissertations

Exercise and physical activity are known to have beneficial effects on endothelial function and vascular health. Sedentary behavior and physical inactivity, however, have been shown to be related to poor endothelial function and vascular health. The overall purpose of this dissertation was to further elucidate the physiological links between physical (in)activity and vascular health. In the first study, 12 active, young (18-40 yr) individuals and 12 active, old (55+ yr) individuals were recruited. Participants underwent 5 days of removal of exercise, and had their endothelial function assessed via flow-mediated dilation (FMD) during their normal, habitual exercise state (EX) and during …

Cardiometabolic Risk Factors Associated With Physical Fitness And Activity Levels: An Exploratory Study Of Us College Students, Keegan T. Peterson, Gabrielle Barraco, Jennifer Niessner, Melissa Rodgers, Melissa Bopp

International Journal of Exercise Science

International Journal of Exercise Science 18(8): 379-393, 2025. College students are a vulnerable population at risk of developing and/or experiencing poor physical fitness and insufficient physical activity (PA) levels, both associated with poor cardiometabolic health. Thus, this study assessed the association of physical fitness and domain-specific PA levels on cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRFs) among college students. A volunteer sample of students enrolled in general health and wellness courses at a large, Northeastern U.S. institution from Spring 2023 – Spring 2024 (n=1418, 69.0% male, 89.9% non-Hispanic White) completed an objective health assessment as part of a required course assignment. CMRFs (e.g., …

Comparative Effects Of Exercise And Glp-1 Ras On Type 2 Diabetic Rat Model: A Systematic Review, Sumera Afzal, Hira Attique Dr., Abdul Hameed Dr., Sumaira Imran Farooqui Prof.Dr, Sofia Amjad Dr.

International Journal of Exercise Science

International Journal of Exercise Science 18(6): 363-378, 2025. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a major health problem worldwide having life-threatening complications causing mortality and a rise in prevalence. Effective treatment strategies are vital for managing diabetes and its associated complications including cardiovascular disease (CVD), nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy. This systematic review aims to evaluate effective treatment approaches, focusing on the comparative effects of exercise and GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) in T2D rat models. Current pharmacological therapies primarily target glycemic control and insulin sensitivity. However, there is a growing concern in non-traditional approaches that involve exercise and GLP-1 RAs for …

Associations Of Parental Perceived Health With Child Movement Behaviors Within Two-Parent Households, You Fu, Hayley Almes, Nora Constantino, Doria Schmidt, Ryan D. Burns

International Journal of Physical Activity and Health

This study aimed to examine how perceived parental mental and physical health status was associated with child physical activity, screen time, and sleep. Participants were 6- to 17-year-old minors (N = 20,156; 47.9% female) from the 2022 US National Survey of Children’s Health. Dependent variables were children’s physical activity frequency, screen time, and sleep. Independent variables were parents’ physical and mental health status. Using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model, two adjusted path models were constructed. One for parent mental health associating with parental physical health, another for parent physical health associating with parental mental health–both further associating with child movement behaviors. …

A Comparative Analysis Of Stress Relief, Life Satisfaction, And Quality Of Life Based On Marriage Status And Gender Among Members Of Society Participating In Exercise, Ji-Hye Yang, Sicheol Jung, Hyejin Yang, Chulhwan Choi, Chul-Ho Bum

Human Movement Studies & Special Education Faculty Publications

Modern members of society tend to feel stressed in their workplace and at home, but exercising has been shown to effectively reduce stress and increase quality of life and satisfaction. This study aimed to investigate and compare stress relief, life satisfaction, and quality of life based on marriage status and gender among members of society who participate in exercise. We used a questionnaire survey with 311 participants, and the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, validity and reliability, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and a post hoc analysis. The study results showed that the single groups demonstrated higher mean …

A Survey Of Nurse Practitioners' And Physician Assistants' Students' Preparedness And Interest In Utilizing Physical Activity In Patient Care, Barrett Snyder

West Chester University Master’s Theses

Despite the well-documented benefits of physical activity (PA) for physical and mental health, as well as its role in preventing chronic disease and reducing mortality, most individuals fall short of meeting recommended PA guidelines. Although medical professionals recognize the value of PA counseling, several barriers, such as limited academic coverage, time constraints, and lack of reimbursement, have hindered its consistent implementation in clinical practice. To address these challenges, initiatives like Exercise is Medicine (EIM) promote integrating PA as a vital sign and encourage interdisciplinary collaboration, including referrals to Clinical Exercise Physiologists (CEPs), to support PA promotion. This evolving approach presents …

International Society Of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Nutritional Concerns Of The Female Athlete, Ralf Jäger, Jeffery L. Heileson, Sidney Abou Sawan, Broderick L. Dickerson, Megan Leonard, Richard B. Kreider, Chad M. Kerksick, Stephen M. Cornish, Darren G. Candow, Dean M. Cordingley, Scott C. Forbes, Grant M. Tinsley, Tindaro Bongiovanni, Roberto Cannataro, Bill I. Campbell, Shawn M. Arent Ph.D., Cscs*D, Fissn, Facsm, Fnak, Jeffrey R. Stout, Douglas S. Kalman, Jose Antonio

Faculty Publications

Position Statement: The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) presents this position based on a critical examination of the literature surrounding the effects of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (ω-3 PUFA) supplementation on exercise performance, recovery, and brain health. This position stand is intended to provide a scientific foundation for athletes, dietitians, trainers, and other practitioners regarding the effects of supplemental ω-3 PUFA in healthy and athletic populations. The following conclusions represent the official position of the ISSN: Athletes may be at a higher risk for ω-3 PUFA insufficiency. Diets rich in ω-3 PUFA, including supplements, are effective strategies for …

International Society Of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Long-Chain Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, Ralf Jäger, Jeffrey L. Heilson, Sidney Abou Sawan, Broderick L. Dickerson, Megan Leonard, Richard B. Kreider, Chad M. Kerksick, Stephen M. Cornish, Darren G. Candow, Dean M. Cordingley, Scott C. Forbes, Grant M. Tinsley, Tindaro Bongiovanni, Roberto Cannataro, Bill I. Campbell, Shawn M. Arent, Jeffrey R. Stout, Douglas S. Kalman, Jose Antonio

Faculty Scholarship

Position Statement: The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) presents this position based on a critical examination of the literature surrounding the effects of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (ω-3 PUFA) supplementation on exercise performance, recovery, and brain health. This position stand is intended to provide a scientific foundation for athletes, dietitians, trainers, and other practitioners regarding the effects of supplemental ω-3 PUFA in healthy and athletic populations. The following conclusions represent the official position of the ISSN:

1. Athletes may be at a higher risk for ω-3 PUFA insufficiency.

2. Diets rich in ω-3 PUFA, including supplements, are effective strategies …

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Enhancing Health And Wellness In Female University Students: A Study On The Impact Of Self-Monitoring, Goal Setting, And Feedback, Halle Landies

Masters Essays

Incorporating exercise into daily routines helps female university students navigate the challenges of university life, promotes long-term health, and fosters a balanced and productive lifestyle (Kohl, 2013). This study aims to expand the research on applied behavior analysis by examining the effectiveness of self-monitoring, goal setting, and feedback in helping female students achieve daily goals related to step count, exercise, distance walked, etc.. Using a changing criterion design, participants recorded data via an Apple Watch, with the intervention's effectiveness evaluated weekly over a six-week period.

Barriers To Leisure-Time Physical Activity Among College Students, Ben Andrew Winfield

Masters Theses

Obesity is an increasing problem worldwide. In general, people eat more and exercise less, with a lot of individuals not meeting World Health Organization recommendation of 150-300 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75-150 minutes of vigorous-intensity physical activity weekly. At times, individuals may face barriers which prevent or inhibit their ability to participate in leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), exercise completed in one’s free time. These barriers are known as leisure constraints and are comprised of three categories: intrapersonal, feelings and psychological aspects; interpersonal, relationship aspects; and structural, physical aspects. Body image, the perception individuals have about their bodies and …