Immunology and Infectious Disease Commons^™

Borders: A Story Of Political Imagination, Miriam Ticktin

Publications and Research

This article traces three different political imaginaries about borders, suggesting that the dominant imaginary—the one of border walls, driven by a fear of invasion—is only one way to live in the world. The goal is to make space in our political imaginations to rethink how we live together, including thinking beyond nation-states as containers that keep people in or out. By first showing how the vision of invasion is built and maintained with intersecting transnational technologies and ideologies, I open the way to thinking otherwise. Second, I trace the counterpolitics of borders developed by artists and activists, resisting borders and …

Thrombospondin-1 Expression And Modulation Of Wnt And Hippo Signaling Pathways During The Early Phase Of Trypanosoma Cruzi Infection Of Heart Endothelial Cells, Ashutosh Arun, Kayla J. Rayford, Ayorinde Cooley, Tanu Rana, Girish Rachakonda, Fernando Villalta, Siddharth Pratap, Maria F. Lima, Nader Sheibani, Pius N. Nde

Publications and Research

The protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, causes severe morbidity and mortality in afflicted individuals. Approximately 30% of T. cruzi infected individuals present with cardiac pathology. The invasive forms of the parasite are carried in the vascular system to infect other cells of the body. During transportation, the molecular mechanisms by which the parasite signals and interact with host endothelial cells (EC) especially heart endothelium is currently unknown. The parasite increases host thrombospondin-1 (TSP1) expression and activates the Wnt/β-catenin and hippo signaling pathways during the early phase of infection. The links between TSP1 and activation of the signaling pathways and …

Editorial: Pathogens, Pathobionts, And Autoimmunity, Linda A. Spatz, Gregg J. Silverman, Judith A. James

Publications and Research

No abstract provided.

Bcr Affinity Influences T-B Interactions And B Cell Development In Secondary Lymphoid Organs, Alec J. Wishnie, Tzippora Chwat-Edelstein, Mary Attaway, Bao Q. Vuong

Publications and Research

B cells produce high-affinity immunoglobulins (Igs), or antibodies, to eliminate foreign pathogens. Mature, naïve B cells expressing an antigen-specific cell surface Ig, or B cell receptor (BCR), are directed toward either an extrafollicular (EF) or germinal center (GC) response upon antigen binding. B cell interactions with CD4+ pre-T follicular helper (pre- Tfh) cells at the T-B border and effector Tfh cells in the B cell follicle and GC control B cell development in response to antigen. Here, we review recent studies demonstrating the role of B cell receptor (BCR) affinity in modulating T-B interactions and the subsequent differentiation of B …

Are Covid-19 Vaccine Boosters Needed? The Science Behind Boosters, Rachel M. Burckhardt, John J. Dennehy, Leo L. M. Poon, Linda J. Saif, Lynn W. Enquist

Publications and Research

Waning vaccine-induced immunity coupled with the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants has led to increases in breakthrough infections, prompting consideration for vaccine booster doses. Boosters have been reported to be safe and increase SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing antibody levels, but how these doses impact the trajectory of the global pandemic and herd immunity is unknown. Information on immunology, epidemiology and equitable vaccine distribution should be considered when deciding the timing and eligibility for COVID-19 vaccine boosters.

A Diverse And Inclusive Academic Membership For All, Victor Puac-Polanco, Alfredo Morabia

Publications and Research

With the growing recognition that diversity and inclusion are essential for the improvement of science and innovation, this commentary provides some perspectives on three findings in the DeVilbiss et al. (2020)'s article and provide points of discussion on factors and strategies to consider when drafting diversity and inclusion programs for the Society for Epidemiologic Research.

From The Human To The Planetary: Speculative Futures Of Care, Miriam Ticktin

Publications and Research

This is largely a theoretical, speculative essay that takes on the question of what ‘care’ looks like at a moment when climate change is increasingly taking center stage in public and political discussions. Starting with two new practices, namely, humanitarian care for nonhumans and One Health collaborations, I seek to determine what forms of political care can incorporate the well-being of future generations and future iterations of the earth. After an exploration of One Health as an approach to planetary care, I ask what its parts enable us to think, despite its limitations; I focus on the new human-nonhuman assemblages …

Endothelial Iqgap1 Regulates Leukocyte Transmigration By Directing The Lbrc To The Site Of Diapedesis, David P. Sullivan, Prarthana J. Dalal, Fanny Jaulin, David B. Sacks, Geri Kreitzer, William A. Muller

Publications and Research

Transendothelial migration (TEM) of leukocytes across the endothelium is critical for inflammation. In the endothelium, TEM requires the coordination of membrane movements and cytoskeletal interactions, including, prominently, recruitment of the lateral border recycling compartment (LBRC). The scaffold protein IQGAP1 was recently identified in a screen for LBRC-interacting proteins. Knockdown of endothelial IQGAP1 disrupted the directed movement of the LBRC and substantially reduced leukocyte TEM. Expression of truncated IQGAP1 constructs demonstrated that the calponin homology domain is required for IQGAP1 localization to endothelial borders and that the IQ domain, on the same IQGAP1 polypeptide, is required for its function in TEM. …

Synthesis And Evaluations Of “1,4-Triazolyl Combretacoumarins” And Desmethoxy Analogs, Tashrique A. Khandaker, Jessica D. Hess, Renato Aguilera, Graciela Andrei, Robert Snoeck, Dominique Schols, Padmanava Pradhan, Mahesh K. Lakshman

Publications and Research

1,4-Triazolyl combretacoumarins have been prepared by linking the trimethoxyarene unit of combretastatin A4 with coumarins, via a 1,2,3-triazole. For this, 4-azidocoumarins were accessed by a sequential two-step, one-pot reaction of 4-hydroxycoumarins with (benzotriazol-1-yloxy)tris(dimethylamino)phosphonium hexafluorophosphate (BOP), followed by reaction with NaN₃. In the reaction with BOP, a coumarin-derived phosphonium ion intermediate seems to form, leading to an O⁴-(benzotriazolyl)coumarin derivative. For the CuAAC reaction of azidocoumarins with 5-ethynyl-1,2,3-trimethoxybenzene, catalytic [(MeCN)₄Cu]PF₆ in CH₂Cl₂/MeOH with 2,6-lutidine, at 50 ^oC, was suitable. The 4-azidocoumarins were less reactive as compared to PhN₃ and …

Abrogation Of Endogenous Glycolipid Antigen Presentation On Myelin-Laden Macrophages By D-Sphingosine Ameliorates The Pathogenesis Of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis, Yi Ban, Wenjuan Dong, Lixing Zhang, Tian Zhou, Ahmad Sabri Altiti, Khaleel Ali, David R. Mootoo, Victoria A. Biaho, Timothy Hla, Yi Ren, Xiaojing Ma

Publications and Research

Background: Although myelin is composed of mostly lipids, the pathological role of myelin lipids in demyelinating diseases remains elusive. The principal lipid of the myelin sheath is b-galactosylceramide (b-Galcer). Its a-anomer (a-Galcer) has been demonstrated to be antigenically presented by macrophages via CD1d, a MHC class I-like molecule. Myelin, which is mostly composed of b-Galcer, has been long considered as an immunologically-inert neuron insulator, because the antigen-binding cleft of CD1d is highly a-form-restricted.

Results: Here, we report that CD1d-mediated antigenic presentation of myelin-derived galactosylceramide (Mye-GalCer) by macrophages contributed significantly to the progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Surprisingly, this presentation …

Instances Of Influenza In The United States Visualized, Parth Patel

Publications and Research

The Tycho Project collects large data sets related to healthcare and in particular, instances and geographical information of diseases. We look at the instance counts and locations of Influenza from 1919-1951 across the United States. We hope to find seasonal and geographical insight to the spread of the disease.

Generating And Repairing Genetically Programmed Dna Breaks During Immunoglobulin Class Switch Recombination, Laura Nicolas, Montserrat Cols, Jee Eun Choi, Jayanta Chaudhuri

Publications and Research

Adaptive immune responses require the generation of a diverse repertoire of immunoglobulins (Igs) that can recognize and neutralize a seemingly infinite number of antigens. V(D)J recombination creates the primary Ig repertoire, which subsequently is modified by somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class switch recombination (CSR). SHM promotes Ig affinity maturation whereas CSR alters the effector function of the Ig. Both SHM and CSR require activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) to produce dU:dG mismatches in the Ig locus that are transformed into untemplated mutations in variable coding segments during SHM or DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in switch regions during CSR. Within the Ig …

Strains Of Bacterial Species Induce A Greatly Varied Acute Adaptive Immune Response: The Contribution Of The Accessory Genome, Uri Sela, Chad W. Euler, Joel Correa Da Rosa, Vincent A. Fischetti

Publications and Research

A fundamental question in human susceptibility to bacterial infections is to what extent variability is a function of differences in the pathogen species or in individual humans. To focus on the pathogen species, we compared in the same individual the human adaptive T and B cell immune response to multiple strains of two major human pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. We found wide variability in the acute adaptive immune response induced by various strains of a species, with a unique combination of activation within the two arms of the adaptive response. Further, this was also accompanied by a dramatic …

Flp-1 Neuropeptides Modulate Sensory And Motor Circuits In The Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans, Ingrid Buntschuh, Daniel A. Raps, Ivor Joseph, Christopher Reid, Alexander Chait, Raubern Totanes, Michelle Sawh, Chris Li

Publications and Research

Parasitic nematodes infect over one quarter of the population worldwide, causing morbidity in over one billion people. Current anthelmintic drugs are beginning to lose effectiveness due to the presence of resistant strains. We are interested in the role of neuropeptides, which regulate behaviors in all organisms, as another possible target for anthelmintic drugs. FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) are a family of neuropeptides that are conserved throughout the animal kingdom. In particular, nematodes contain the largest family of FaRPs identified thus far and many of these FaRPs are identical among different nematode species; FaRPs in nematodes are collectively referred to as FLPs …

Quantification Of Hiv-1 Rna Among Men Who Have Sex With Men Using An At-Home Self-Collected Dried Blood Spot Specimen: Feasibility Study, Sabina Hirshfield, Richard A. Teran, Martin J. Downing Jr., Mary Ann Chiasson, Hong-Van Tieu, Laura Dize, Charlotte A. Gaydos

Publications and Research

Background: Suboptimal antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence and disengagement in care present significant public health challenges because of the increased probability of HIV transmission. In the United States, men who have sex with men (MSM) continue to be disproportionately affected by HIV, highlighting a critical need to engage high-risk MSM living with HIV who are not engaged or retained in care.

Objective: The aim of the study was to assess the feasibility of at-home blood self-collection and laboratory quantification of HIV-1 RNA viral load (VL) to report laboratory-based VL outcomes and compare self-reported and laboratory-reported VL

Methods: Between 2016 and 2017, …

Nlrp10 Enhances Cd4+ T-Cell-Mediated Ifnγ Response Via Regulation Of Dendritic Cell-Derived Il-12 Release, Maurizio Vacca, Julia Böhme, Lisa Zambetti, Hanif Javanmard Khameneh, Bhairav S. Paleja, Federica Laudisi, Adrian W. S. Ho, Kurt Neo, Keith Weng Kit Leong, Mardiana Marzuki, Bernett Lee, Michael Poidinger, Laura Santambrogio, Liana Tsenova, Francesca Zolezzi, Gennaro De Libero, Amit Singhal, Alessandra Mortellaro

Publications and Research

NLRP10 is a nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor that functions as an intracellular pattern recognition receptor for microbial products. Here, we generated a Nlrp10−/− mouse to delineate the role of NLRP10 in the host immune response and found that Nlrp10−/− dendritic cells (DCs) elicited sub-optimal IFNγ production by antigenspecific CD4+ T cells compared to wild-type (WT) DCs. In response to T-cell encounter, CD40 ligation or Toll-like receptor 9 stimulation, Nlrp10−/− DCs produced low levels of IL-12, due to a substantial decrease in NF-κB activation. Defective IL-12 production was also evident in vivo and affected IFNγ production by CD4+ T cells. Upon …

Zika Virus-Like Particle (Vlp) Based Vaccine, Héléne Boigard, Alexandra Alimova, George R. Martin, Al Katz, Paul Gottlieb, Jose M. Galarza

Publications and Research

The newly emerged mosquito-borne Zika virus poses a major public challenge due to its ability to cause significant birth defects and neurological disorders. The impact of sexual transmission is unclear but raises further concerns about virus dissemination. No specific treatment or vaccine is currently available, thus the development of a safe and effective vaccine is paramount. Here we describe a novel strategy to assemble Zika virus-like particles (VLPs) by co-expressing the structural (CprME) and non-structural (NS2B/NS3) proteins, and demonstrate their effectiveness as vaccines. VLPs are produced in a suspension culture of mammalian cells and self-assembled into particles closely resembling Zika …

Demographic Transition And The Dynamics Of Measles In Six Provinces In China: A Modeling Study, Sheng Li, Chao Ma, Lixin Hao, Qiru Su, Zhijie An, Fubao Ma, Shuyun Xie, Aiqiang Xu, Yangyang Zhang, Zhengrong Ding, Hui Li, Lisa Cairns, Huaqing Wang, Huiming Luo, Ning Wang, Li Li, Matthew J. Ferrari

Publications and Research

Background Industrialization and demographic transition generate nonstationary dynamics in human populations that can affect the transmission and persistence of infectious diseases. Decades of increasing vaccination and development have led to dramatic declines in the global burden of measles, but the virus remains persistent in much of the world. Here we show that a combination of demographic transition, as a result of declining birth rates, and reduced measles prevalence, due to improved vaccination, has shifted the age distribution of susceptibility to measles throughout China.

Methods and findings We fit a novel time-varying catalytic model to three decades of age-specific measles case …

Ifn-G Induces Histone 3 Lysine 27 Trimethylation In A Small Subset Of Promoters To Stably Silence Gene Expression In Human Macrophages, Yu Qiao, Kyuho Kang, Eugenia Giannopoulou, Celeste Fang, Lionel B. Ivashkiv

Publications and Research

The mechanisms by which IFN-g activates expression of interferon-stimulated genes that have inflammatory and host defense functions are well understood. In contrast, little is known about how IFN-g represses gene expression. By using transcriptomic and epigenomic analysis, we found that stable repression of a small group of genes by IFN-g is associated with recruitment of the histone methyltransferase EZH2 and deposition of the negative mark histone 3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) at their promoters. Repressed genes included MERTK, PPARG, and RANK, which have anti-inflammatory functions and promote osteoclast differentiation. Gene repression and H3K27me3 persisted after IFN-g signaling was terminated, and …

Receptor-Type Guanylyl Cyclase At 76c (Gyc76c) Regulates De Novo Lumen Formation During Drosophila Tracheal Development, Monn Monn Myat, Unisha Patel

Publications and Research

Lumen formation and maintenance are important for the development and function of essential organs such as the lung, kidney and vasculature. In the Drosophila embryonic trachea, lumena formde novo to connect the different tracheal branches into an interconnected network of tubes. Here, we identify a novel role for the receptor type guanylyl cyclase at 76C (Gyc76C) in de novo lumen formation in the Drosophila trachea.We show that in embryosmutant for gyc76C or its downsteam effector protein kinase G (PKG) 1, tracheal lumena are disconnected. Dorsal trunk (DT) cells of gyc76C mutant embryos migrate to contact each other and complete the …

Pharmacologic Inhibition Of Host Phosphodiesterase-4 Improves Isoniazid-Mediated Clearance Of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis, Selvakumar Subbian, Mi-Sun Koo, Liana Tsenova, Vikram Khetani, Jerome B. Zeldis, Dorothy Fallows, Gilla Kaplan

Publications and Research

The lengthy duration of multidrug therapy needed to cure tuberculosis (TB) poses significant challenges for global control of the disease. Moreover, chronic inflammation associated with TB leads to pulmonary damage that can remain even after successful cure. Thus, there is a great need for the development of effective shorter drug regimens to improve clinical outcome and strengthen TB control. Host-directed therapy (HDT) is emerging as a novel adjunctive strategy to enhance the efficacy and shorten the duration of TB treatment. Previously, we showed that the administration of CC-3052, a phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor (PDE4i), reduced the host inflammatory response during Mycobacterium tuberculosis …

P2x7r-Panx1 Complex Impairs Bone Mechanosignaling Under High Glucose Levels Associated With Type-1 Diabetes, Zeynep Seref-Ferlengez, Stephanie Maung, Mitchell B. Schaffler, David C. Spray, Sylvia O. Suadicani, Mia M. Thi

Publications and Research

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) causes a range of skeletal problems, including reduced bone density and increased risk for bone fractures. However, mechanisms underlying skeletal complications in diabetes are still not well understood.We hypothesize that high glucose levels in T1D alters expression and function of purinergic receptors (P2Rs) and pannexin 1 (Panx1) channels, and thereby impairs ATP signaling that is essential for proper bone response to mechanical loading and maintenance of skeletal integrity. We first established a key role for P2X7 receptor-Panx1 in osteocyte mechanosignaling by showing that these proteins are co-expressed to provide a major pathway for flow-induced ATP release. …

Killer-Cell Immunoglobulin-Like Receptor (Kir) Gene Profiles Modify Hiv Disease Course, Not Hiv Acquisition In South African Women, V. Naranbhai, D. De Assis Rosa, L. Werner, R. Moodley, H. Hong, A. Kharsany, K. Mlisana, S. Sibeko, N. Garrett, D. Chopera, William H. Carr, Q. Abdool Karim, A. V. S. Hill, S. S. Abdool Karim, M. Altfeld, C. M. Gray, T. Ndung’U

Publications and Research

Background: Killer-cell Immunoglobulin-like Receptors(KIR) interact with Human Leukocyte Antigen(HLA) to modify natural killer- and T-cell function. KIR are implicated in HIV acquisition by small studies that have not been widely replicated. A role for KIR in HIV disease progression is more widely replicated and supported by functional studies.

Methods: To assess the role of KIR and KIR ligands in HIV acquisition and disease course, we studied at-risk women in South Africa between 2004–2010. Logistic regression was used for nested case–control analysis of 154 women who acquired vs. 155 who did not acquire HIV, despite high exposure. Linear mixed-effects models were …

An Evolutionary Vaccination Game In The Modified Activity Driven Network By Considering The Closeness, Dun Han, Mei Sun

Publications and Research

In this paper, we explore an evolutionary vaccination game in the modified activity driven network by considering the closeness. We set a closeness parameter p which is used to describe the way of connection between two individuals. The simulation results show that the closeness p may have an active role in weakening both the spreading of epidemic and the vaccination. Besides, when vaccination is not allowed, the final recovered density increases with the value of the ratio of the infection rate to the recovery rate λ/μ. However, when vaccination is allowed the final density of recovered individual first increases and …

Geospatial Resolution Of Human And Bacterial Diversity With City-Scale Metagenomics, Ebrahim Afshinnekoo, Cem Meydan, Shanin Chowdhury, Dyala Jaroudi, Collin Boyer, Nick Bernstein, Julia M. Maritz, Darryl Reeves, Jorge Gandara, Sagar Chhangawala, Sofia Ahsanuddin, Amber Simmons, Timothy Nessel, Bharathi Sundaresh, Elizabeth Pereira, Ellen Jorgensen, Sergios-Orestis Kolokotronis, Nell Kirchberger, Isaac Garcia, David Gandara, Sean Dhanraj, Tanzina Nawrin, Yogesh Saletore, Noah Alexander, Priyanka Vijay, Elizabeth M. Hénaff, Paul Zumbo, Michael Walsh, Gregory D. O'Mullan, Scott Tighe, Joel T. Dudley, Anya Dunaif, Sean Ennis, Eoghan O'Halloran, Tiago R. Magalhaes, Braden Boone, Angela L. Jones, Theodore R. Muth, Katie Schneider Paolantonio, Elizabeth Alter, Eric E. Schadt, Jeanne Garbarino, Robert J. Prill, Jane M. Carlton, Shawn Levy, Christopher E. Mason

Publications and Research

The panoply of microorganisms and other species present in our environment influence human health and disease, especially in cities, but have not been profiled with metagenomics at a city-wide scale. We sequenced DNA from surfaces across the entire New York City (NYC) subway system, the Gowanus Canal, and public parks. Nearly half of the DNA (48%) does not match any known organism; identified organisms spanned 1,688 bacterial, viral, archaeal, and eukaryotic taxa, which were enriched for harmless genera associated with skin (e.g., Acinetobacter). Predicted ancestry of human DNA left on subway surfaces can recapitulate U.S. Census demographic data, and bacterial …

Dynamically-Expressed Prion-Like Proteins Form A Cuticle In The Pharynx Of Caenorhabditis Elegans, Julia B. George-Raizen, Keith R. Shockley, Nicholas F. Trojanowski, Annesia L. Lamb, David M. Raizen

Publications and Research

In molting animals, a cuticular extracellular matrix forms the first barrier to infection and other environmental insults. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans there are two types of cuticle: a wellstudied collagenous cuticle lines the body, and a poorly-understood chitinous cuticle lines the pharynx. In the posterior end of the pharynx is the grinder, a tooth-like cuticular specialization that crushes food prior to transport to the intestine for digestion. We here show that the grinder increases in size only during the molt. To gain molecular insight into the structure of the grinder and pharyngeal cuticle, we performed a microarray analysis to …

Environmental Data Analysis And Remote Sensing For Early Detection Of Dengue And Malaria, Md Zahidur Rahman, Leonid Roytman, Abdelhamid Kadik, Dilara A. Rosy

Publications and Research

Malaria and dengue fever are the two most common mosquito-transmitted diseases, leading to millions of serious illnesses and deaths each year. Because the mosquito vectors are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity, it is possible to map areas currently or imminently at high risk for disease outbreaks using satellite remote sensing. In this paper we propose the development of an operational geospatial system for malaria and dengue fever early warning; this can be done by bringing together geographic information system (GIS) tools, artificial neural networks (ANN) for efficient pattern recognition, the best available ground-based epidemiological and …

Association Between Symptomatic Vulvovaginal Candidiasis And Hiv Rna Levels In Plasma And Genital Secretions Among Women On Haart, Teke Apalata, William H. Carr, Benjamin Longo-Mbenza, Willem A. Sturm, P. Moodley

Publications and Research

Background. Genital tract (GT) inflammation plays a major role in HIV transmission. We aimed to determine the association between symptomatic vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) and HIV RNA levels in plasma and GTs of HIV-infected women on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

Method. Women with VVC on HAART were recruited from a primary healthcare clinic in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, between June 2011 and December 2011. VVC was diagnosed clinically, supported by Gram staining and culture of genital secretions. HIV RNA load was determined by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. CD4+ counts were obtained from patients’ medical records.

Results. Plasma HIV RNA …

Epidemiology Of Undiagnosed Trichomoniasis In A Probability Sample Of Urban Young Adults, Susan M. Rogers, Charles F. Turner, Marcia Hobbs, William C. Miller, Sylvia Tan, Anthony M. Roman, Elizabeth Eggleston, Maria A. Villarroel, Laxminarayana Ganapathi, James R. Chromy, Emily Erbelding

Publications and Research

T. vaginalis infection (trichomoniasis) is the most common curable sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the U.S. It is associated with increased HIV risk and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Trichomoniasis surveillance data do not exist for either national or local populations. The Monitoring STIs Survey Program (MSSP) collected survey data and specimens which were tested using nucleic acid amplification tests to monitor trichomoniasis and other STIs in 2006–09 among a probability sample of young adults (N = 2,936) in Baltimore, Maryland — an urban area with high rates of reported STIs. The estimated prevalence of trichomoniasis was 7.5% (95% CI 6.3, 9.1) …

Chagas Disease In The 21st Century: A Public Health Success Or An Emerging Threat?, Kevin M. Bonney

Publications and Research

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is a major public health burden in Latin America and a potentially serious emerging threat to a number of countries throughout the world. Although public health programs have significantly reduced the prevalence of Chagas disease in Latin America in recent decades, the number of infections in the United States and non-endemic countries in Europe and the Western Pacific Region continues to rise. Moreover, there is still no vaccine or highly effective cure available for the approximately 10 million people currently infected with T. cruzi, a third of which will develop potentially …