Life Sciences Commons^™

The Past, Present, And Future Of Equine Science, Sarah H. White-Springer, Jason E. Bruemmer, Robert J. Coleman

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

A core group of 27 equine nutritionists and physiologists joined together in the late 1960s to formally address and enhance the direction of equine research, creating the Equine Nutrition and Physiology Soci- ety. In 2003, that growing society transformed into the Equine Science Society, which now serves as the preeminent, internationally recognized scientific equine organization. In recent years, it has been appre- ciated that equine science encompasses a wide range of focus areas, including exercise science, nutrition, genetics, reproductive physiology, teaching and extension, production and management, and mix of other specialties, qualified as biosciences. Additionally, trainees are highly valued in …

Using Drones To Detect And Quantify Wild Pig Damage And Yield Loss In Corn Fields Throughout Plant Growth Stages, Bethany A. Friesenhahn, Lori D. Massey, Randy W. Deyoung, Michael J. Cherry, Justin W. Fischer, Nathan P. Snow, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Humberto L. Perotto‐Baldivieso

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Presently, there are an estimated 6.9 million wild pigs (Sus scrofa) in the U.S., which cause over US$1 billion in damage to agriculture, environmental impacts, and control costs. However, estimates of damage have varied widely, creating a need for standardized monitoring and a method to accurately estimate the economic costs of direct wild pig damage to agriculture. The goal of our study was to integrate remotely sensed imagery from drones and crop harvest data to quantify wild pig damage in corn fields. We used drones with natural color (red, green, blue) cameras to monitor corn fields at different …

The Impact Of The Covid‑19 Pandemic On Wildlife–Aircraft Collisions At Us Airports, Levi Altringer, Sophie C. Mckee, Jason D. Kougher, Michael J. Begier, Stephanie A. Shwiff

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Exploiting unprecedented reductions in aircraft movements caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, we investigated the relationship between air traffic volume and the frequency of wildlife-aircraft collisions, or wildlife strikes, at the 50 largest airports in the United States. During the COVID- 19 months of 2020 (March–December), both air traffic volume and the absolute number of wildlife strikes were reduced. The net effect of these two movements, however, was an increase in the wildlife strike rate from May 2020–September 2020. This increase was found to be most pronounced at airports with larger relative declines in air traffic volume. We concluded that the …

Echinococcus Species Infections Among Wild Canids In Pennsylvania, Usa, Kayla Garrett, Justin Brown, Ryan K. A. Grunert, Jonathan Hunte, Mark G. Ruder, Kyle Van Why, Michael J. Yabsley, Christopher A. Cleveland

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Echinococcus species are zoonotic tapeworms that can impact the health of wildlife, domestic animals, livestock, and humans. Two species of interest in North America are Echinococcus multilocularis and Echinococcus canadensis (Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato). The primary wildlife definitive hosts for E. multilocularis and E. canadensis are similar, including red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and wolves (Canis lupus). These two Echinococcus spp. use different intermediate hosts, including small mammals for E. multilocularis and artiodactylids for E. canadensis. Although historically absent from …

Turkey Vulture Survival Is Reduced In Areas Of Greater Road Density, Adrián Naveda-Rodríguez, Keith L. Bildstein, David R. Barber, Jean-François Therrien, Michael L. Avery, Bryan M. Kluever, Scott A. Rush, Francisco J. Vilella

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The demography of, and factors that influence these metrics, are largely unknown for most vultures in the Americas. Survivorship of turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) may be influenced by landscape heterogeneity and human disturbance. We quantified the effects of landscape composition (Shannon’s diversity index) and configuration (contagion, edge density, and largest patch index), and human disturbance (road density) on the annual and seasonal survival probabilities of the three North American breeding populations (western, central, and eastern) of turkey vultures that spend the nonbreeding season in the southeastern portion of the Nearctic and the northern Neotropics during a 17-year period. …

“Revisiting The Past”: A Redescription Of Physaloptera Retusa (Nemata, Physalopteridae) From Material Deposited In Museums And New Material From Amazon Lizards = “Revisitando O Passado”: Uma Redescrição De Physaloptera Retusa (Nemata, Physalopteridae) A Partir De Material Depositado Em Museus E Novo Material De Lagartos Amazônicos, Lílian Cristina Macedo, Yuri Willkens, Leandro Maurício Oliveira Da Silva, Scott Lyell Gardner, Francisco Tiago De Vasconcelos Melo, Jeannie Nascimento Dos Santos

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Abstract

Physaloptera Rudolphi, 1819 is a genus of nematodes that includes approximately 100 species parasitic in vertebrates around the world. From these, approximately 30 occur in the Neotropical region, with nine reported from neotropical reptiles. Physaloptera spp. are recognized by their distinct morphology of the apical end and characters of the reproductive system. However, despite the fact that the morphological characters for species diagnosis have been firmly established, we frequently find identification problems regarding poorly detailed descriptions and poorly preserved specimens. These may lead to taxonomic incongruencies. Physaloptera retusa (Rudolphi, 1819) is the most common species of the genus and …

Helminth And Protozoan Parasites Of Subterranean Rodents (Chordata, Mammalia, Rodentia) Of The World, Altangerel Tsogtsaikhan Dursahinhan, Daniel A. Kenkel, Scott Lyell Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Published studies and ten new unpublished records included herein reveal that approximately 174 species of endoparasites (helminths and protozoans) are known from 65 of 163 species of rodents that occupy the subterranean ecotope globally. Of those, 94 endoparasite species were originally described from these rodents. A total of 282 host-parasite associations are summarized from four major zoogeographic regions including Ethiopian, Palearctic/Oriental, Nearctic, and Neotropical. Thirty-four parasite records from the literature have been identified to only the level of the genus. In this summary, ten new records have been added, and the most current taxonomic status of each parasite species is …

Filling The Gap In Distribution Ranges And Conservation Status In Ctenomys (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae), Diego A. Caraballo, Sabrina Laura Lopez, Sebastian Botero-Cañola, Scott Lyell Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

South American subterranean rodents of the genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae, tuco-tuco) are one of the most diverse genera among mammals. Recently described species, new taxonomic revisions, and new distribution range delimitation made the revision of distribution areas and conservation status of these mammals mandatory. Implementing the first part of the DAMA protocol (document, assess, monitor, act), here we compile updated sets of species distribution range maps and use these and the number of collection localities to assess the conservation status of ctenomyids. We integrate potential for conservation in protected areas, and levels of habitat transformation to revise previous conservation status …

Tapping Into Natural History Collections To Assess Latitudinal Gradients Of Parasite Diversity, Sebastian Botero-Cañola, Scott Lyell Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Parasites are key components of the biosphere not only due to their huge diversity, but also because they exert important influences on ecological processes. Nevertheless, we lack an understanding of the biogeographical patterns of parasite diversity. Here, we tap into the potential of biodiversity collections for understanding parasite biogeography. We assess species richness of supracommunities of helminth parasites infecting mammal assemblages in the Nearctic, and describe its relation to latitude, climate, host diversity, and land area. We compiled data from parasitology collections and assessed parasite diversity in Nearctic ecoregions for the entire parasite supracommunity of mammals in each ecoregion, as …

A New Species Of Mathevotaenia (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) From The Andean Tuco-Tuco, Ctenomys Opimus (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae), On The Altiplano Of Bolivia, Scott Lyell Gardner, Bennett A. Grappone, Alex Lai

Scott L. Gardner Publications

A new species of Mathevotaenia Akumyan, 1946 (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) is described from the Andean tuco-tuco, Ctenomys opimus Wagner 1848 (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae), collected in 1984 on the Altiplano of Bolivia. This is the second species of anoplocephalid cestode recorded from rodents of the genus Ctenomys, the first being Monoecocestus torresi Olsen 1976 from the Maule tuco-tuco, Ctenomys maulinus Philippi 1872, documented in southwestern Argentina. The new species of Mathevotaenia described here has more testes per segment than any other described species of the same genus from South America. The description of a new species from a decades-old specimen highlights the …

Modeling Perennial Bioenergy Crops In The E3sm Land Model (Elmv2), Eva Sinha, Katherine V. Calvin, Ben Bond-Lamberty, Beth A. Drewniak, Daniel M. Ricciuto, Khachik Sargsyan, Yanyan Cheng, Carl Bernacchi, Caitlin E. Moore

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Perennial bioenergy crops are increasingly important for the production of ethanol and other renewable fuels, and as part of an agricultural system that alters the climate through its impact on biogeophysical and biogeochemical properties of the terrestrial ecosystem. Few Earth System Models (ESMs) represent such crops, however. In this study, we expand the Energy Exascale Earth System Land Model to include perennial bioenergy crops with a high potential for mitigating climate change. We focus on high-productivity miscanthus and switchgrass, estimating various parameters associated with their different growth stages and performing a global sensitivity analysis to identify and optimize these parameters. …

How To Create A Pollinator Garden [Extension Circular], Gianna M. Desrochers

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

Includes information on:

What Is a pollinator?

What is pollination and why is it important?

What habitat do pollinators like?

How do I create pollinator habitat?

Plants to plant in eastern Nebraska

• April-May blooming flowers
• June-July blooming flowers
• August-October blooming flowers

Native plants and their visitors

Websites for more information and plant options

Works cited

Palatability, Consumption, And Physiological Effects Of The Green Microalgae Chlorella Sp. As A Feed Substitute For The Western Honey Bee Apis Mellifera In A Laboratory Setting, Benjamin J. Nichols

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

Western honey bees Apis mellifera are vital pollinators which play a significant role in global food security. Honey bees are faced by numerous environmental pressures including lack of forage which lead to large losses annually of managed honeybee colonies. To offset these pressures, many beekeepers manage colonies with the addition of artificial diets, many of which contain products that do not meet the nutritional requirements needed by honey bees or require large amounts of resources to grow. Recent literature has indicated that algae may be a viable nutritional resource for honey bees, meeting the nutritional requirements needed, requiring less resources, …

The Hottest Topic In The Field Of Entomology: Pyroentomology, Sarah Choi

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

Introduction

Summers are usually accompanied with wildfire season, with fires burning rampant across the world. These fires can be devastating to those who live in affected areas, resulting in many short and long-term consequences. However, they also are a source of most-needed resources in the afflicted area. Natural disturbances are a key component of any ecosystem and to improve biodiversity (Krawchuk et al., 2020). Disturbances also promote community stability and landscape heterogeneity (Bai et al., 2022). Forest fires can affect interactions between plant and animal communities and its members, as well as natural processes such as nutrient cycling and soil …

Comparison Of Insecticide And Trap Crop Management Practices For The Control Of Acalymma Vittatum (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) In Cucumbers, Keely Wright

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

The striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vittatum (F.)) is a specialist herbivore pest, feeding on plants in the Cucurbitaceae family across North America. Adult beetles migrate into cucurbit fields from the field edges to feed on the emerged plant parts. Control methods can include insecticides, cultural practices, and some biological control species, or a combination of multiple methods, each having their own advantages and disadvantages. A push-pull trap crop management system using blue hubbard squash (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne) and nasturtiums was established and compared to a lambda-cyhalothrin (Matador 120EC) foliar insecticide control approach in a cucumber crop. Lambda-cyhalothrin, applied …

Acute Copper (Cu) Toxicity In Dragonfly Naiads (Insecta: Odonata), Jeff M. Simpson

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

The objective of this study was to examine the effects copper (Cu) on mortality within a pair of test groups of naiads in the order Odonata, and to replicate previous observations regarding their potential uses as indicators for water quality. Few past studies have examined toxicity within relation to the odonates. It has been suggested that this order may contain valuable model organisms (Tollett et al., 2008). Very little focus has been given to odonates as bioindicators, with the few studies done being performed on species that would typically inhabit lentic environments (Trevino, 1999). Similarly, the test subjects for this …

Discoverinsects.Com: An Interactive Tool To Introduce Younger Audiences To Entomology, Ian Eldred

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

Early in life, children’s views towards arthropods can be tainted by many things. One major way is through the views held and expressed by those that surround them, especially their caregivers. Tools are needed to reach children during these crucial developmental ages and expose them to all of the wonderful things arthropods do and educate them on how big of a role arthropods play in the lives of every human around the globe. As digital technology in households is becoming more apparent and accessible, new ways to engage these audiences need to be developed and utilized. This creates a unique …

Entomology Outreach Presentations To Four Audiences, Michael Goldman

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

I proposed that my master’s Project would be outreach on Entomology at four levels: School aged children, laymen, non-entomologists in a technical field, and entomologists. The idea here is basically how to talk about entomology to varying levels of expertise, from first graders to experts in both entomology and occupational health and safety. Presentations were given to audiences at each of the four levels. The specific topics varied for each audience. The determination was made by the inviting audience in the cases of school aged children and adult laymen and by me in the cases of Occupational Safety and Health …

Entomophagy: Mealworm Protein In An Inpatient Hospital Setting (Engagement And Education To Rollout Entomophagy For Improved Nutrition), Caryl Showalter

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

The consumption of insects (entomophagy) is a well-practiced phenomenon in many parts of the world. Western societies, including the US, are among the few places that do not participate in this practice. However, entomophagy has the potential to ease nutritional burdens, globally. While many may believe that nutritional deficits are a relic of more economically challenging times or a problem specifically linked to the low economic countries, the truth is that any area can face this problem. This was made clear in the US during the coronavirus lockdown with an estimated doubling in food insecurity associated with a lack of …

Nature Journaling With Insects: A Guide And Journal Template, Danielle Positeri

Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects

An Introduction to Nature Journaling

Nature journaling is a natural history based activity centered on journaling one’s experiences and observations based on surrounding environment and natural lifeforms encountered. A tool commonly used by those who study natural history, famous naturalists such as Charles Darwin and John Muir were known to keep nature journals. Although those who make their careers in environmental sciences or field work keep professional, very detailed journals, journaling can also be a great activity for those who simply enjoy nature. Public educators teach nature journaling to young students to encourage building a plethora of skills: mindfulness, attention …

Mites [Of Dogs And Cats], Susan E. Little, Roberto Cortinas

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Veterinary parasitology: 20,000-word article details recognition and treatments for mite infestations of dogs and cats. Mite species reviewed include:

Cheyletiella spp. (“Walking Dandruff”)

Demodex spp. (Hair Follicle Mites, Red Mange, Demodicosis, Demodectic Mange)

Sarcoptes scabiei (Itch Mite, Scabies, Sarcoptic Mange)

Notoedres cati (Feline Head and Neck Mange)

Otodectes cynotis (Ear Mites)

Pneumonyssoides caninum (Nasal Mite)

Lynxacarus radovskyi (Fur Mite, Hair Clasping Mite)

Trombiculid Mites (Chiggers, Red Bugs, Berry Bugs, Harvest Mites, Scrub Itch or Grass Itch Mites)

Discussions include Etiology and epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Clinical features, Diagnosis, Treatment and prognosis, Immunity, Prevention, and Public health aspects.

Complete with 209 references.

More People, More Cats, More Parasites: Human Population Density And Temperature Variation Predict Prevalence Of Toxoplasma Gondii Oocyst Shedding In Free-Ranging Domestic And Wild Felids, Sophie Zhu, Elizabeth Vanwormer, Karen Shapiro

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous zoonotic parasite that can infect warm-blooded vertebrates, including humans. Felids, the definitive hosts, drive T. gondii infections by shedding the environmentally resistant stage of the parasite (oocysts) in their feces. Few studies characterize the role of climate and anthropogenic factors in oocyst shedding among free-ranging felids, which are responsible for the majority of environmental contamination. We determined how climate and anthropogenic factors influence oocyst shedding in free-ranging domestic cats and wild felids using generalized linear mixed models. T. gondii oocyst shedding data from 47 studies were systematically reviewed and compiled for domestic cats and six …

Chemical Characterization And Biological Evaluation Of Epilobium Parviflorum Extracts In An In Vitro Model Of Human Malignant Melanoma, Sotiris Kyriakou, Venetia Tragkola, Ioannis Paraskevaidis, Mihalis Plioukas, Dimitrios T. Trafalis, Rodrigo Franco, Aglaia Pappa, Mihalis I. Panayiotidi

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Malignant melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer characterised by high metastatic capacity and mortality rate. On the other hand, Epilobium parviflorum is known for its medicinal properties, including its anticancer potency. In this context, we aimed to (i) isolate various extracts of E. parviflorum, (ii) characterize their phytochemical content, and (iii) determine their cytotoxic potential in an in vitro model of human malignant melanoma. To these ends, we utilized various spectrophotometric and chromatographic (UPLC-MS/MS) approaches to document the higher content of the methanolic extract in polyphenols, soluble sugars, proteins, condensed tannins, and chlorophylls -a and -b as …

Detection Of Mannheimia Haemolytica-Specific Igg, Igm And Iga In Sera And Their Relationship To Respiratory Disease In Cattle, Korakrit Poonsuk, Carita Kordik, Matthew M. Hille, Ting-Yu Cheng, William B. Crosby, Amelia R. Woolums, Michael L. Clawson, Carol G. Chitko-Mckown, Bruce Brodersen, John Dustin Loy

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Mannheimia haemolytica is one of the major causes of bovine respiratory disease in cattle. The organism is the primary bacterium isolated from calves and young cattle affected with enzootic pneumonia. Novel indirect ELISAs were developed and evaluated to enable quantification of antibody responses to whole cell antigens using M. haemolytica A1 strain P1148. In this study, the ELISAs were initially developed using sera from both M. haemolytica-culture-free and clinically infected cattle, then the final prototypes were tested in the validation phase using a larger set of known-status M. haemolytica sera (n = 145) collected from feedlot cattle. The test …

First Gene-Edited Calf With Reduced Susceptibility To A Major Viral Pathogen, Aspen M. Workman, Michael P. Heaton, Brian L. Vander Ley, Dennis A. Webster, Luke Sherry, Jonathan R. Bostrom, Sabrina Larson, Theodore S. Kalbfleisch, Gregory P. Harhay, Erin E. Jobman, Daniel F. Carlson, Tad S. Sonstegard

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is one of the most important viruses affecting the health and well-being of bovine species throughout the world. Here, we used CRISPR-mediated homology-directed repair and somatic cell nuclear transfer to produce a live calf with a six amino acid substitution in the BVDV binding domain of bovine CD46. The result was a gene-edited calf with dramatically reduced susceptibility to infection as measured by reduced clinical signs and the lack of viral infection in white blood cells. The edited calf has no off-target edits and appears normal and healthy at 20 months of age without obvious …

Does Swab Type Matter? Comparing Methods For Mannheimia Haemolytica Recovery And Upper Respiratory Microbiome Characterization In Feedlot Cattle, William B. Crosby, Lee Pinnell, John T. Richeson, Cory Wolfe, Jake Castle, John Dustin Loy, Sheryl P. Gow, Keun Seok Seo, Sarah F. Capik, Amelia R. Woolums, Paul S. Morley

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is caused by interactions among host, environment, and pathogens. One standard method for antemortem pathogen identification in cattle with BRD is deep-guarded nasopharyngeal swabbing, which is challenging, costly, and waste generating. The objective was to compare the ability to recover Mannheimia haemolytica and compare microbial community structure using 29.5 inch (74.9 cm) deep-guarded nasopharyngeal swabs, 16 inch (40.6 cm) unguarded proctology swabs, or 6 inch (15.2 cm) unguarded nasal swabs when characterized using culture, real time-qPCR, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Samples for aerobic culture, qPCR, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing were collected from the …

Aerobic Exercise And Scaffolds With Hierarchical Porosity Synergistically Promote Functional Recovery Post Volumetric Muscle Loss, Christina Zhu, Karina Skylar, Yori Endo, Mohamadmahdi Samandari,, Mehran Karvar, Azadeh Mostafavi, Jacob Quint, Chiara Rioldi, Wojciech Swieszkowski, Joshua Mauney, Shailesh Agarwal, Ali Tamayol, Indranil Sinha

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Volumetric muscle loss (VML) is a composite loss of skeletal muscle tissue (greater than 20%) that heals with minimal muscle regeneration, substantial fibrosis, and subsequent functional deficits. Standard treatment, involving free functional muscle transfer and physical therapy, cannot restore full muscle function following VML. Tissue engineered scaffolds, 3D structural templates that mimic native extracellular matrix, are promising to enhance functional muscle formation and recovery. Bioprinted 3D scaffolds are engineered using bioinks, created from scaffolding material, cells, and growth factors, to replicate skeletal muscle architecture with precise control over their spatial deposition. METHODS: The present study evaluates a 3D-printed foam-like scaffold …

Infection Of Feral Phenotype Swine With Japanese Encephalitis Virus, So Lee Park, Yan-Jang S. Huang, Amy C. Lyons, Victoria B. Ayers, Susan M. Hettenbach, D. Scott Mcvey, Leela E. Noronha, Kenneth R. Burton, Stephen Higgs, Dana L. Vanlandingham

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Background: Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic flavivirus and the leading cause of pediatric encephalitis in the Asian Pacific region. The transmission cycle primarily involves Culex spp. mosquitoes and Ardeid birds, with domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domestica) being the source of infectious viruses for the spillover of JEV from the natural endemic transmission cycle into the human population. Although many studies have concluded that domestic pigs play an important role in the transmission cycle of JEV, and infection of humans, the role of feral pigs in the transmission of JEV remains unclear. Since domestic and …

Detection Of Sars-Cov-2 Neutralizing Antibodies In Retropharyngeal Lymph Node Exudates Of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus) From Nebraska, Usa, Korakrit Poonsuk, Duan S. Loy, Rachael Birn, Bryan Buss, Matthew Donahue, Todd Nordeen, Kylie Sinclair, Luke Meduna, Bruce Brodersen, John Dustin Loy

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Disease surveillance testing for emerging zoonotic pathogens in wildlife is a key component in understanding the epidemiology of these agents and potential risk to human populations. Recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in humans, and subsequent detection of this virus in wildlife, highlights the need for developing new One Health surveillance strategies. We used lymph node exudate, a sample type that is routinely collected in hunter-harvested white-tailed deer (WTD, Odocoileus virginianus) for surveillance of chronic wasting disease, to assess anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies. A total of 132 pairs of retropharyngeal lymph nodes collected from Nebraska WTD harvested in Nebraska, US, in 2019 …

Early-Phase Drive To The Precursor Pool: Chloroviruses Dive Into The Deep End Of Nucleotide Metabolism, David Dunigan, Irina Agarkova, Ahmed Esmael, Sophie Alvarez, James L. Van Etten

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Viruses face many challenges on their road to successful replication, and they meet those challenges by reprogramming the intracellular environment. Two major issues challenging Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1, genus Chlorovirus, family Phycodnaviridae) at the level of DNA replication are (i) the host cell has a DNA G+C content of 66%, while the virus is 40%; and (ii) the initial quantity of DNA in the haploid host cell is approximately 50 fg, yet the virus will make approximately 350 fg of DNA within hours of infection to produce approximately 1000 virions per cell. Thus, the quality and quantity of …