Labor and Employment Law Commons^™

Challenging The Employment-At-Will Doctrine Through Modern Contract Theory, Clare Tully

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This Note advocates an implied contract analysis that both satisfies contractual requirements and protects the reasonable expectations of employees and employers. Part I describes the various reliance interests that employees bring to their jobs, the employer inducements that cause this reliance, and the business benefits that accrue when employees rely upon these inducements. Part II examines in detail judicial reluctance to enforce either these reliance interests or employer promises as contract rights under the at-will doctrine. Part II also urges the increased use of modern contract theories such as promissory estoppel, quasi-contract, and implied contract to protect employee reliance interests …

Exploring Voluntary Arbitration Of Individual Employment Disputes, Alfred W. Blumrosen

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This Article outlines an arbitration process which may be employed in individual employment contracts to achieve a fair disposition of disputes, with the maximum finality for an arbitration decision which is consistent with legal principles. Where finality is not possible, arbitration would be a condition precedent to formal legal processes. To assure fairness in the process, the employer would agree to pay the arbitrator's fee and the employee's attorney fees incurred in connection with the arbitration.

Employment Problems Of The Handicapped: Would Title Vii Remedies Be Appropriate And Effective?, Cornelius J. Peck

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This Article argues that the employment problems of the handicapped are not well-suited for treatment under a statutory discrimination model. Underlying this argument is the belief that the concept of discrimination is not adaptable to the problems of the handicapped, and efforts to apply it will only worsen existing problems. Part I begins by defining the meaning of discrimination, and then explores the similarities and differences between discrimination against the handicapped, and discrimination based on race, sex, religion, and national origin. The purpose of this discussion is to provide a basic framework for understanding claims that the handicapped should be …

Protecting The Free Speech Rights Of Insurgent Teachers' Unions: Evaluating The Constitutionality Of Exclusive Access To School Communications Facilities, Stephen E. Woodbury

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Part I examines the traditional and limited public forum doctrines designed to guarantee speakers a right of access to public places, and finds these theories inadequate in the school union setting. Part II explores a recent addition to the free speech/equal protection analysis: the content neutrality doctrine. This doctrine mandates that when a school board allows one union to express its viewpoints, a duty is created to provide equivalent access to all unions, absent a compelling state interest. Part III reviews several justifications for limiting non-EBA access, and finds most of them without merit and none of them adequate to …

Alternatives To Seniority-Based Layoffs: Reconciling Teamsters, Weber, And The Goal Of Equal Employment Opportunity, Paul M. Hamburger

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This Note advocates the use of legal incentives for adopting nonpreferential alternatives to seniority-based layoffs. Part I analyzes the impact of bona fide seniority systems on recently hired minorities and women. Part II discusses existing legal incentives for unions and employers to seek alternatives to strict seniority layoffs and for courts to enjoin such layoffs, thereby forcing the parties to negotiate over alternatives. Finally, part III examines two kinds of potential alternatives: racially preferential alternatives, which are prohibited under Title VII, and nonpreferential options, which are permissible and should be used increasingly.

Union Representatives As Corporate Directors: The Challenge To The Adversarial Model Of Labor Relations, Robert A. Mccormick

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This Article addresses these questions first by discussing the predominant philosophical approach adopted by unions in their dealings with management, and then describing several ways in which the labor laws reflect this traditional model of employment relations by showing, first, that the influence of unions has been limited to circumscribed categories of business decisions. The Article next examines decisions made by the National Labor Relations Board ("NLRB") and the courts that have carefully sought to separate employer from employee, assuming their interests to be inherently antagonistic. Then follows an evaluation of the NLRB's treatment of deviations from the traditional model …

Employment Discrimination Against The Overweight, Karol V. Mason

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Part I of the Note discusses the existence of employment discrimination against the overweight and the significance of the problem it poses. Part II examines existing employment discrimination legislation to discern what protection is currently available to the overweight. Finally, part III concludes that present laws are inadequate to protect overweight persons from employment discrimination. The Note argues for the passage of legislation designating weight as a classification protected from employment discrimination, and prohibiting the use of weight standards unrelated to job performance. Such legislation is necessary to allow the growing number of overweight Americans the opportunity to compete equally …

A Proposal For Apportioning Damages In Fair Representation Suits, Kenneth B. Mcclain

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Apportionment of damages in fair representation suits represents one of the most unsettled issues in labor law today. Although the Supreme Court has attempted to establish a single "governing principle" for apportioning damages, lower courts have read this principle as authorizing two divergent standards for apportionments. Part I of this article traces the evolution from the Court's original standard presented in Vaca v. Sipes through two subsequent applications of that standard: the Czosek v. O'Mara standard, which interpreted Vaca as placing the bulk of damages on the employer, and Justice Stewart's standard taken from his concurrence in Hines v. Anchor …

Advance Notice Of Plant Closings: Toward National Legislation, Joseph A. Cipparone

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This article advocates the adoption of national legislation requiring advance notice for plants closed or relocated for ostensibly economic reasons. Part I discusses the magnitude of the plant closing problem, focusing upon the costs associated with such closings, the types of assistance available for terminated workers, and the inadequacies of current relief efforts. Parts II and III examine the arguments for and against requiring advance notice of plant closings, and conclude that such a requirement represents sound public policy. Part IV proposes a complete model advance notice statute. The model statute establishes minimum requirements for a viable advance notice system, …

Protecting Retired Workers From Inflation: Collective Bargaining For Retiree Benefits, Richard M. Bank, Thomas C. Woodruff

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

The purpose of this article is to explore whether the collective bargaining process in its present form, or with certain modifications, can provide workers with meaningful protection against inflation. Part I evaluates the adequacy of the collective bargaining process by examining the internal dynamics of unions, the interests of employers and the application of the doctrine of fair representation to collective bargaining. After concluding that the current system inadequately protects retirees, Part II proposes alternative methods to strengthen the role of retirees in the collective bargaining process.

Tax-Based Incomes Policy (Tip) As A Alternative To Wage And Price Controls, Steven R. Hunsicker

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Part I of this article will evaluate the major arguments opposing such policies against the background of the recent American experience with wage and price controls. Part II, in light of the applicability of these arguments to TIPs, will consider whether some variant of TIP could realize the claimed benefits while minimizing the economic and administrative costs usually associated with wage and price controls.

Wage Discrimination And Job Segregation: The Survival Of A Theory, Ruth G. Blumrosen

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

My earlier article in this journal, Wage Discrimination, Job Segregation, and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, advanced the theory that the same discriminatory factors which lead to job segregation are also likely to be responsible for wage differentials between segregated jobs. The discriminatorily depressed wage rate of the segregated job is therefore one of the "adverse effects" under Griggs v. Duke Power Co. of job segregation. In order to establish a prima facie case of wage discrimination in a Title VII action, plaintiffs must show the fact of job segregation - that the jobs were …

Employee Stock Ownership Plans: An Analysis Of Current Reform Proposals, Luis L. Granados

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This article surveys the battle between the critics and advocates of the ESOP, and scrutinizes various proposals currently being considered in the legislative arena. Part I examines the philosophy and history of the ESOP, particularly focusing upon the conceptual foundations provided by the writings of Louis Kelso. Part II explicates the various functions performed by the ESOP: as a tool of corporate finance, as an "in-house" market for the sale of stock held by a company's shareholders, and as a means of obtaining additional investment tax credit. Part III analyzes critically six proposed improvements of the ESOP system from both …

Wage Discrimination And The "Comparable Worth" Theory In Perspective, Bruce A. Nelson, Edward M. Opton Jr., Thomas E. Wilson

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Our article focuses primarily on one legal question: Does the wage discrimination theory, as sketched by Professor Blumrosen, fall within the remedial ambit of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act? Wage Discrimination's factual contentions as to the existence and universality of wage discrimination deserve equally detailed analysis, but we leave that task to scholars of the pertinent disciplines, sociology and economics. We will deal with the factual contentions of Wage Discrimination only so far as necessary to challenge its central factual conclusion: that a demonstration of job separation should lead to a judicial inference of wage discrimination. This …

Wage Discrimination, Job Segregation, And Title Vii Of The Civil Rights Act Of 1964, Ruth G. Blumrosen

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

It is the thesis of this article that job segregation and wage discrimination are not separate problems, but rather are intimately related. Wherever there is job segregation, the same forces which determine that certain jobs or job categories will be reserved for women or minorities also and simultaneously determine that the economic value of those jobs is less than if they were "white" or "male" jobs. Thus, those women and minorities who are channelled into segregated jobs are not only deprived of initial hiring opportunities in other jobs and meaningful transfer opportunities, but are also paid wages for the jobs …

Birth Defects Caused By Parental Exposure To Workplace Hazards: The Interface Of Title Vii With Osha And Tort Law, Lynne Darcy

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This article will examine the problem of workers' exposure to toxic substances that affect human reproductive functions in light of the applicable legal framework provided by tort law, the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA), and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. What employers may do to deal with this problem under existing law, and possible resolutions of some apparent conflicts between the underlying purposes of these laws, will also be delineated. It is the position of this article that the competing interests of employers, workers, and workers' offspring must be harmonized not by excluding …

Employee Stock Ownership Plans, Voting Rights, And Plant Closings, Jonathan Barry Forman

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

After examining the structure and tax consequences of ESOPs, this note will argue that ESOPs should guarantee employees full voting rights over securities transferred to them under such plans. This note will also propose that ESOPs can be used in employee takeovers of corporations as part of a plan to help prevent plant closings.

Tort Liability Of Labor Unions For Picket Line Assaults, David R. Case

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This article will discuss whether tort actions against unions for picket line assaults are preempted by the National Labor Relations Act, and if not preempted, what forums are available to hear such actions. This article will also examine the theories that have been used to hold unions liable for the assaults committed by their picketers. Included in this discussion will be an analysis of the policy considerations offered in support of the various theories of liability.

Punitive Damages Under Section 102 Of The Labor-Management Reporting And Disclosure Act, S. Thomas Wienner

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

It is firmly established that in a suit brought under section 102, a union member may ordinarily recover compensatory damages for any injury proximately caused by a violation of Title I or section 609. The courts are divided, however, on the question of whether a plaintiff may be awarded punitive damages under section 102. This article will address that question by discussing the language and the legislative history of section 102, the conflicting decisions of the federal courts, and the relevant policy considerations.

Reprisal Discharges Of Union Officials, Alan V. Reuther

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Usually union officers and employees are also members of their union. The dual status of officer-members and employee-members places them in a unique situation under the LMRDA. As union members, they are entitled to the rights enumerated in Title I. As union officers and employees, however, they serve at the pleasure of their superiors. This situation raises the question whether officer- and employee-members have a cause of action under the LMRDA when they are discharged in retaliation for exercising rights protected under Title 1. Resolution of this question depends upon whether or not such reprisal discharges violate the provisions of …

National League Of Cities V. Usery: Its Implications For The Equal Pay Act And The Age Discrimination In Employment Act, Ellen B. Spellman

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

In National League of Cities v. Usery, the Supreme Court invalidated the application of the FLSA minimum wage and maximum hours provisions to certain essential state government activities as an unconstitutional intrusion on state sovereignty. This article will explore the implications of that decision with respect to the application of the EPA and the ADEA to state and local governments.

Part I contains a brief discussion of the Fair Labor Standards Act and Amendments. Part II discusses National League with reference to traditional commerce clause interpretation. Part III analyzes the difficulties of applying the decision, particularly the problem of …

Protecting Employee Solicitation - Distribution Rights From Union Waiver, Alan V. Reuther

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Section 7 of the National Labor Relations Act guarantees various fundamental rights to employees, including the right to self-organization. Recognizing the inherent superiority of the work place as a situs for organizational activities, the courts and the National Labor Relations Board (hereinafter NLRB or Board) have balanced the property interests of employers against the organizational interests of labor and concluded that employees have the right to distribute literature on the employer's premises in nonworking areas during nonworking time and to solicit support during nonworking time for purposes protected by Section 7, unless special circumstances of production, discipline, or safety are …

Employer Racial Discrimination: Reviewing The Role Of The Nlrb, Lawrence F. Doppelt

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

The NLRB and various commentators rely upon three basic legal arguments in rejecting this interpretation: first, the EEOC, and not the NLRB, is the sole and proper agency for litigating racial issues; second, employer racial discrimination does not interfere with the protected rights of employees under the Act, and third, it is not, and never was, Congress' intent in passing the Act to bring racial discrimination within its purview. Unquestionably, each of these legal arguments has, or at some time had, surface appeal, and, at one time, considerable force. The great mass of legal commentary supports at least one of …

Presumption Of Dependence In Workers' Compensation Death Benefits As A Denial Of Equal Protection, A. Russell Localio

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This note will examine the sex bias prevalent in many workers' compensation statutes and the constitutionality of these statutes in light of recent Supreme Court decisions on sex discrimination. After this examination, alternative methods for effecting reform of the sex-biased death benefit provisions will be analyzed.

Impasse Resolution Mechanisms And Teacher Strikes, Diane L. Kaye

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Public school teachers have no right to strike under Michigan law, but the power to strike exists. Michigan residents witnessed forty teacher strikes in the autumn of 1973 alone. Among them was the forty-four-day strike by Detroit teachers. The strikes during the past fall were not an unfortunate aberration. Ninety percent of the strikes in Michigan are by school teachers. In the public education context, the threat of a strike no longer brings negotiating parties together. A new mechanism for resolution of deadlocks in teacher-school board contract disputes is needed. This article describes the problem, outlines impasse resolution procedures presently …

Guidelines For Alleviating Local-Emergency Work Disruptions, Joshua Greene

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

The first section of this article summarizes the vast differences between the rights of public and private employees to strike. The second section focuses on likely obstacles to a governmental suit to enjoin shutdowns in the broadest segment of American private industry-the segment in which labor relations are governed by the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA). The final section of the article suggests a legislative solution to the problem, fashioned after existing statutory remedies for limiting certain strikes by public employees.

Protecting The Older Worker, H. Patrick Callahan, Charles T. Richardson

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Unlike racial discrimination, age discrimination statutes do not prohibit all forms of discrimination but only those forms that are arbitrary. In this respect age is most analogous to sex as a basis of discrimination: in neither case has a conclusive statutory presumption been made that these factors are irrelevant in an employment situation; in both situations the employer must make his decision to hire or not to hire on the abilities of the individual and not on assumptions, proven or unproven, about the class as a whole. This note considers the extent of arbitrary age discrimination and what measures have …

Facially Neutral Criteria And Discrimination Under Title Vii: "Built-In Headwinds" Or Permissible Practices?, Dianne Brou Fraser

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

This article discusses how Title VII affects the operation of these facially neutral practices and attempts to determine when such practices are unlawful under Title VII. It also discusses the possible effects of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 on this problem.

Self Defense For Women Lawyers: Enforcement Of Employment Rights, Giovanna M. Longo

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

Employment and a concomitant opportunity to compete on the basis of individual merit for the rewards of achievement, whether they be money, power, prestige, personal satisfaction in a job well done, or the fulfillment of broad social aims, contribute to the assertion of legitimate human needs for independence and self-respect, and contribute to the expression and realization of individual potential. Women professionals and professional employers need to understand the applicable law regarding the proof of sex discrimination, what exceptions there are to prohibited sex discrimination, the procedures for enforcing that law and the benefits or detriments to be expected from …

Michigan Compulsory Arbitration Act For Essential Services, William J. Rainey

University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform

When Public Act 312 became effective on October 1, 1969, Michigan joined Rhode Island and Pennsylvania in permitting compulsory arbitration of unresolved labor disputes involving municipal police and firemen. Wyoming similarly provides for compulsory arbitration in fire department disputes. Passage of the Act was prompted by a desire to avoid the dire consequences of strikes or work stoppages by firefighters and policemen, and to provide a method by which the bargaining power of public service unions could be maintained in the absence of the strike privilege. Since Michigan had barred strikes by public employees in 1947, the unions felt that …