International Law Commons^™

Combinations, Concerted Practices And Cartels: Adopting The Concept Of Conspiracy In European Community Competition Law Symposium On European Competition Law , Julian M. Joshua, Sarah Jordan

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This article charts the progress of, and the vicissitudes faced by, the incorporation into the European Community legal order of the peculiarly common law concept of conspiracy as the vehicle not only for analytical purposes, by characterizing full-blown cartels as "agreements" in the sense of Article 81 of the EC Treaty, but also to resolve the multiplicity of evidential issues presented by complex, pernicious and secretive behavior. The article also shows how the uncovering of deliberate and secretive business delinquency, practiced at the highest levels in some of Europe's most respected corporations and summed up by the negative connotations of …

Role Of Judicial Review In Merger Control, The Symposium On European Competition Law , Mark Clough

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This article explains the role of judicial review in European Community ("EC") Merger Control ("ECMR") by reference to the Airtours case and three other important recent judgments of the European Court of First Instance ("CFI") (Schneider, Tetra Laval and Lagardére), all decided in 2002. Article 230 of the EC Treaty, which governs actions for annulment of acts adopted by the EC Institutions "on the grounds of lack of competence, infringement of an essential procedural requirement, infringement of this [EC] Treaty or of any rule of law relating to its application, or misuse of powers," is considered only in the context …

A Road Map For Corporate Governance In East Asia, Chee Keong Low

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

Much has transpired since the inadequacies of corporate governance practices in East Asia were glaringly exposed by the Asian financial crisis. The crisis brought to the foreground numerous deficiencies, which had common roots in excessive over-leverage as well as the lack of transparency, disclosure and accountability. These issues have been explicitly recognized with the release of the White Paper on Corporate Governance in Asia by the Asian Roundtable on Corporate Governance in June 2003.

By responding in part to the White Paper, this article sets out a "roadmap" whose ultimate objective is the enhancement of the practice of corporate governance …

Test Of Multilateralism In International Trade: U.S. Steel Safeguards, Y.S. Lee

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The highly publicized safeguard measures applied by the United States to an array of steel products in 2002 became one of the biggest and most controversial trade disputes in recent history. Virtually all major trading nations in the world, including the European Community, Japan , China , Brazil , Korea , New Zealand , Switzerland and Norway , were the direct parties to this dispute with the United States . The contentious legal grounds of the U.S. safeguard measures, as well as the lack of adequate consultations between the United States and its trading counterparts, have brought the international community …

European Community Compulsory Licensing Policy: Heresy Versus Commen Sense Symposium On European Competition Law , Frank Fine

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

There is a growing trend to limit the rights of intellectual property owners when the public interest warrants. Until very recently, this phenomenon has been manifested only at a transnational level.1 For example, the World Trade Organization, as recently as November 2001, in its Doha Agreement ("Doha"),2 enabled certain nations of the Asian and African subcontinents to obtain compulsory licenses to manufacture and distribute domestically certain anti-retroviral drugs by declaring a state of national health emergency. Doha raises an intriguing question: if limited intrusions into valuable intellectual property rights may be justified on public health grounds, should not such intrusions …

Injury Investigations In "Material Retardation" Antidumping Cases, Prakash Narayanan

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

Despite the criticisms of economists to antidumping measures, they continue to be the most often used trade remedy measure. A new trend that may be observed is the use of the "material retardation" standard of injury to demonstrate injury to domestic industry that is one of the requirements for imposing antidumping duty. It is essential to be wary of this trend as unlike the other two types of injury, the WTO lacks specific guidelines for the use of this standard. The general rules in the Antidumping Agreement are unsuitable for the situations where the material retardation standard is relevant, and …

"Open Skies" At A Crossroads: How The United States And European Union Should Use The Ecj Transport Cases To Reconstruct The Transatlantic Aviation Regime, Jacob A. Warden

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

Since the creation of the modern international aviation regime, at the 1944 Chicago Conference, the United States has used this power and prestige to create a system much to its liking. However, the recent decision of the Court of Justice of the European Communities ("ECJ") in the Transport Cases threatens to change this. The Transport Cases, brought by the European Commission ("Commission") in an attempt to achieve exclusive authority to negotiate commercial aviation agreements for the collective European Union, partially struck down several bilateral aviation treaties signed between several of the Member States and the United States. The Commission, recognizing …

The Disappearance Of The Ultra Vires Doctrine In Greater China: Harmonized Legislative Action Or (Simply) An Accident Of History, Lutz-Christian Wolff

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

In the context of company law, the term "ultra vires" is normally used to describe acts that are beyond the scope of the powers of a corporation. Rules concerning ultra vires acts of companies have changed in recent years in mainland China, Taiwan and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region ("Hong Kong"). It appears that in all of these parts of Greater China, the legal frameworks are now rather similar to each other and seem to resemble the rules that are applied in the Macau Special Administrative Region ("Macau"). This, of course, provokes questions: what are the reasons for these …

The European Union's Efforts To Sidestep The Wto Through Its Ban On Gmos: A Response To Sarah Lively's Paper, "The Abcs And Ntbs Of Gmos", Johannes S.A. Iii Claus

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The purpose of this paper is to refute Ms. Sarah Lively's article, the ABCs and NTBS of GMOs, detailing the reasons why the E.U. legislation is not in harmony with the WTO agreements. This paper will argue that if a WTO dispute settlement body were to decide upon the validity of the current European GMO regime, it would strike down the regulation as contrary to the WTO agreements signed by the European Union and the United States. The European Union's four year moratorium on GMOs continues to be one of the most hotly-contested trade issues facing it and the United …

Fight Or Flight Of U.S.-Based Multinational Businesses: Analyzing The Causes For, Effects Of, And Solutions To The Corporate Inversion Trend, Hale E. Sheppard

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

When a person is confronted by a threat, he or she experiences a psychological and physiological response commonly known as "fight or flight." In general, this innate survival mechanism causes the body to direct blood to vital areas and to release lactic acid, adrenaline and other chemicals in order to prepare a person to either face the threat or flee immediately. Multinational corporations based in the United States, likewise, have recently displayed similar fight-or-flight behavior when faced with the threat of high taxes. Unfortunately for the U.S. economy, a growing number of these American corporations have chosen the latter: flight. …

Implementation Of The Wto Agreements: Framework And Reform, Xin Zhang

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The term 'implementation' has two meanings in the WTO context. The general meaning refers to all the modalities, mechanisms, and instruments that assist in the application of the WTO Agreements. A more recent meaning, highlighted by the Doha Development Agenda, addresses the 'implementation-related issues and concerns' such as those "raised by many developing-country Members regarding the implementation of some WTO Agreements and Decisions, including the difficulties and resource constraints that have been encountered in the implementation of obligations in various areas." In this regard, the WTO implementation issue refers to the abilities of developing-country Members to implement the existing WTO …

The International Art Auction Industry: Has Competition Tarnished Its Finish, Brenna Adler

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

I argue that a stronger, more cohesive international regulation specially tailored to the auction industry is required in order to keep auction houses from committing unlawful behavior. Auction houses should not be considered merely businesses. Rather, special regulations are needed--regulations that take into account the unique goods that auction houses sell. Part I of this comment will describe auctioneers' duties to sellers under the law. I will compare and contrast the laws of the United States, the Netherlands, and France and focus on an American case that discusses the breach of an auctioneer's duty to the seller. Part II will …

The Protection Of Test And Other Data Required By Article 39.3 Of The Trips Agreement, G. Lee Skillington, Eric M. Solovy

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the origins, purpose and scope of protection for test and other data required by TRIPS Article 39.3. Through this analysis, which looks to the ordinary meaning of the provision in proper context in the same manner as would a WTO dispute settlement panel or the WTO Appellate Body, we conclude that Article 39.3 provides protection against the unjust or unfair application or conversion of certain test and other data to make a profit or to obtain a benefit. Such protection must be provided long enough to allow the originator to at least recoup …

The New Economic Constitution In China: A Third Way For Competition Regime?, Youngjin Jung, Qian Hao

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This article will discuss the basic features of the competition regime China is ready to set up, as envisioned in its draft of the anti-monopoly law. By comparing different antimonopoly systems worldwide and their relevance to China's idiosyncrasies in its antimonopoly law, this article intends to promote a better understanding of China's emerging antitrust regime by providing illustrative comments and legislative suggestions. Part II of this article will focus on the economic and legal contexts of the drafting of the antimonopoly law in order to illuminate the unique priorities of the Chinese lawmakers. Part III will highlight the distinctive traits …

Crackdown On Money Laundering: A Comparative Analysis Of The Feasibility And Effectiveness Of Domestic And Multilateral Policy Reforms, Kathleen A. Lacey, Barbara Crutchfield George

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This is a uniquely opportune time for anti-money laundering initiatives and policy reform to occur. Since the terrorist attacks in the United States in September, 2001, security agencies throughout the world have rushed to follow leads that may prove that Osama bin Laden financed the attack with massive amounts of laundered money. Greater awareness of the harmful effects of money laundering, and public and governmental concerns regarding reverse-money laundering by terrorists, has resulted in a surge of attention directed toward anti-money laundering efforts. Consequently, financial institutions are under increasing pressure to comply with existing anti-money laundering regulations by implementing internal …

Justice Required: Using A Preservation-Of-Court-Access Approach To Forum Non Conveniens In Five International Product-Injury Case Studies, Jeffrey A. Van Detta

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The American federal courts have used a questionable common law procedural rule to erect a virtually impenetrable barrier for those injured in other countries by products or industrial activities of U.S.-based multinationals. This barrier exists as the forum non conveniens ("FNC") rule. Section II briefly reviews the current problems that the FNC rule causes and explains its origins. In Section III, I describe my doctrinal shift away from the FNC rule to a preservation-of-court-access statute. I demonstrate in Section IV, the focus of the article, how applying that statute would change the outcome of actual product injury cases filed by …

Strengthening Available Evidence-Gathering Tools In The Fight Against Internatoinal Money Laundering, W. Clifton Holmes

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

Congress responded rapidly to the terror attacks, passing the U.S.A. Patriot Act ("Patriot Act") in October 2001. In addition to providing the death penalty for the "attempted wrecking of a mass transportation vehicle," the Patriot Act contains several anti-money laundering provisions. This article will argue that the Patriot Act's anti-money laundering scope was excessively narrow in that the Act did not address existing inadequacies under federal law in the area of grand jury investigations of transnational money laundering offenses. In order to enhance the efficacy of such investigations, Congress should take three steps: first, Congress should confer to federal courts …

Express Delivery And The Postal Sector In The Context Of Public Secto Anti-Competitive Practices, D. Daniel Sokol

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

International trade plays an increasingly important role in global economics. One growing part of the international economy has been express delivery services. Because various governments that maintain public sector postal monopolies have erected barriers to entry to impede its growth, express delivery has become an important battleground within the realm of trade. International trade, which initially consisted mainly of the trade of goods, is now increasingly focusing on services. This article focuses on the problem of a particular type of service and the barriers on this service (express delivery) that countries place upon it. Not surprisingly, those countries that are …

Should China Provide Intellectual Property Protection For Genetically Modified Animals?, Ke Geng

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The advent of recombinant genetic engineering techniques has revolutionized biotechnology. The biomedicine and biotechnology industries have extensively employed these techniques to improve the quality of agricultural crops and livestock and to create genetically modified organisms ("GMOs") in order to produce drugs. Since as much as twenty-five percent of the world's intellectual property-related trade involves biotechnology, many countries have realized the importance of providing intellectual property protection for biotechnological technologies, including GMOs. In the past decade, China's booming economy has helped make its biotechnological market the fastest growing market in the world. To stimulate innovation and attract private investment in its …

Regulatory Mismatch In The International Market For Legal Services, Carole Silver

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The increasingly international reach of law owes part of its momentum to individual lawyers and law firms that function as carriers of ideas, processes and policies. U.S. lawyers are important participants in this expanding influence of law, both in the public sphere in areas such as human rights and in private areas, such as regulation of business. They work as representatives of both U.S. clients and foreign organizations and governments, bringing their basic mindset, shaped by education and practice experiences, into their dealings with foreign lawyers as they connect in a variety of roles, from co- and opposing counsel, to …

Creating A Market For Justice; A Market Incentive Solution To Regulating The Playing Field: Judicial Deference, Judicial Review, Due Process, And Fair Play In Online Consumer Arbitration, Llewellyn Joseph Gibbons

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

Swindlers, purveyors of substandard products or services, and honest traders unable to perform their agreements can access the global market as easily as legitimate and capable businesses. The impersonal nature of e-commerce makes it more difficult for traders to discern a merchant or transaction that will not satisfy their expectations. This article analyzes procedural due process concerns as an element of arbitration in online dispute resolution ("ODR") in business-to-consumer ("B2C") e-commerce. B2C e-commerce will be worth an estimated $250 billion by the end of 2003, but one factor hindering its growth is the lack of effective dispute resolution. For reasons …

The Abcs And Ntbs Of Gmos: The Great European Union-United States Trade Debate - Do European Restrictions On The Trade Of Genetically Modified Organisms Violate Internaitonal Trade Law, Sarah Lively

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The genetic engineering of agriculture has spurred a lively worldwide discussion, and the technology has found both enthusiastic fans and formidable foes. Specifically, the United States has signed on as a proponent of the genetic modification of agriculture. In fact, the United States has become the largest producer of genetically modified organisms ("GMOs") and is consequently the leading exporter of genetically modified goods. On the other side of this debate lies the European Community ("EC"). The European Community is much less enthusiastic about GMOs and effectively questions their presence in our environment and food products. The European Community has focused …

Recovering Attorneys' Fees As Damages Under The U.N. Sales Convention (Cisg): The Role Of Case Law In The New International Commercial Practice, With Comments On Zapata Hermanos V. Hearthside Baking, Harry M. Fletcher

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The conclusion I ultimately draw is that, although the holdings of individual cases are ambiguous, as a group the relevant foreign decisions clearly sanction an award of CISG damages to cover attorneys' fees that would not normally be compensable under U.S. national law. As I discuss in Part III of the article, the firmly-established "American rule" on recovery of attorneys' fees is that, in the absence of a statutory or contractual provision to the contrary, each party to a dispute must bear his or her own attorneys' fees. A line of U.S. cases construing Article 2 of the U.C.C. strongly …

How Far Have We Come, And Where Do We Go From Here: The Status Of Global Computer Software Protection Under The Trips Agreement, Aaron D. Charfoos

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

The TRIPS agreement made significant advances over the pre-TRIPS international regime with respect to the protection of computer software. There are at least two significant advances. First, computer software protections have been embedded into the new dispute resolution procedures. Second, both object and source code are protected under the copyright sections of the Agreement. The dispute resolution procedures provide back-end protection (protection after offenses have occurred), while new copyright provisions provide affirmative front-end protection (protection deterring such offenses). However, the Agreement could have, and should have, gone farther to protect the software industry. By not formally deciding on the ability …

Optimal International Taxation And Tax Competition: Overcoming The Contradictions, William B. Barker

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This paper presents a theory of international taxation based on a new approach to source taxation that reflects world development and synthesizes the objectives of economic efficiency, fairness to taxpayers, and fairness to governments. Adoption of this model results in the preservation of comprehensive income taxation to capital-exporting nations and an expenditure tax base for capital-importing nations. The system would reduce much of the distortion caused by tax competition, eliminating the tax incentive for businesses to use productive assets and technologies outside the country of their development and saving the jobs of many workers.

African Private Security Companies And The Alien Tort Claims Act: Could Multinational Oil And Mining Companies Be Liable?, Jennifer L. Heil

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This paper focuses specifically on the possible liability under the ATCA of multinational oil and mining companies operating in Africa. First, it will examine the relationships between the multinational oil and mining companies, private security forces and African governments. In doing so, it will describe the actual activities and operations of the private security forces in conjunction with the oil and mining corhpanies. Second, this paper will outline the elements of liability under the ATCA. This will include a discussion of recent cases in which foreign nationals have sued multinational companies in the United States for alleged human rights abuses …

International Economic Conflict And Resolution, C. O'Neal Taylor

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

Conflict and their resolutions contribute to the development of the law. Organizations and systems are structured or restructured and policies are formulated in response to them. In the case of international economic law, conflict comes in a variety of forms and is resolved in a number of ways and in different forums.' The 2001 Conference of the International Economic Law Group focused on the issue of conflict resolution.2 The two plenary sessions of the conference were held at the Warwick Hotel in Houston. This symposium issue of the Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business contains three of the articles …

International Commercial Arbitration In Cyberspace: Recent Developments, Ljiljana Biukovic

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

This article examines some features of virtual arbitration and argues that the use of new technology and the development of e-commerce raise some interesting questions to international arbitration laws. Part It describes initiatives to develop online dispute resolution. Part III discusses virtual dispute resolution centers, including, how, why, and where they function. More importantly, however, Part III investigates the differences between online and off-line arbitration, where the focus remains on three questions. The first question is a crucial one. It has been debated by scholars and practitioners but still remains unresolved: will arbitration agreements concluded online and arbitration awards rendered …

Judicial Activism At The World Trade Organizational: Development Principles Of Self-Restraint, J. Patrick Kelly

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

In a number of recent decisions the AB has begun to grapple in a non-systematic way with both the incorporation and creative interpretation issues.14 These decisions raise serious concerns that the AB is exceeding its authority under the DSU and inappropriately incorporating non-WTO law or interpreting WTO agreements in a manner that diminishes the rights of members. This article explores both the incorporation and creative interpretation questions by assessing the relative merits of three different models of how social regulatory policy might be integrated into WTO decision-making: the Judicial Activist Model, the Contract Model, and the Legislative Model.

Knowledge, Legitimacy, Efficiency And The Institutionalization Of Dispute Settlement Procedures At The World Trade Organization And The World Intellectual Property Organization, Michael P. Ryan

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

International legal research regarding international economic dispute settlement tends to be a-theoretical. A theoretically-grounded analytic framework is employed in this article which draws from scholarship from political science, sociology, and economics regarding institutions and international governmental organizations. The knowledge-legitimacy-efficiency analytic framework is applied in this article to studies of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GA TT)/World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement in order to relate this relevant scholarship to the economic field under primary study, Internet domain names. GA TT/WTO knowledge regarding international trade law has thickened through multi-lateral trade negotiations and dispute settlement decisions. The WTO's legitimacy is …