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Full-Text Articles in Criminal Law

Police Or Pirates? Reforming Washington's Civil Asset Forfeiture System, Jasmin Chigbrow Oct 2021

Police Or Pirates? Reforming Washington's Civil Asset Forfeiture System, Jasmin Chigbrow

Washington Law Review

Civil asset forfeiture laws permit police officers to seize property they suspect is connected to criminal activity and sell or retain the property for the police department’s use. In many states, including Washington, civil forfeiture occurs independent of any criminal case—many property owners are never charged with the offense police allege occurred. Because the government is not required to file criminal charges, property owners facing civil forfeiture lack the constitutional safeguards normally guaranteed to defendants in the criminal justice system: the right to an attorney, the presumption of innocence, the government’s burden to prove its case beyond a reasonable doubt, …


Bleeding From The Holes In The Theory: How Flawed Deterrence In Federal Tort Claims Enables Police Brutality, Andrew Reisman Oct 2021

Bleeding From The Holes In The Theory: How Flawed Deterrence In Federal Tort Claims Enables Police Brutality, Andrew Reisman

Cardozo Journal of Equal Rights & Social Justice

The note argues that federal tort laws, particularly the Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) and Bivens actions, are ineffective in deterring police brutality due to structural flaws that prevent individual accountability. It proposes reforms to strengthen these legal mechanisms and promote transparency and accountability within federal law enforcement agencies.


When “Empty Is Not Closed”: Organizing Efforts To (Officially) Close St. Louis’ Infamous Workhouse, Brianna Coppersmith Sep 2021

When “Empty Is Not Closed”: Organizing Efforts To (Officially) Close St. Louis’ Infamous Workhouse, Brianna Coppersmith

SLU Law Journal Online

Despite years of community organizing, legal advocacy, and policy change to close St. Louis’ Medium Security Institution, the jail has reopened. In this article, Brianna Coppersmith provides a brief history of the campaign to close the jail, commonly called the Workhouse, and discusses what its reopening might mean for related pending litigation.


Pro Kontra Terhadap Prosedur Dan Substansiomnibus Law Rancangan Undang-Undang Cipta Kerja, Bambang Sadono, Lintang Ratri Rahmiaji Sep 2021

Pro Kontra Terhadap Prosedur Dan Substansiomnibus Law Rancangan Undang-Undang Cipta Kerja, Bambang Sadono, Lintang Ratri Rahmiaji

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

There are at least two main issues concerning the pros and cons of this omnibus law. First is the posedural issue in the process of making laws. Omnibus law should not be solely to support economic growth and facilitate investment. At thesame time other issues must be considered, for example human rights. So that the omnibus law is not merely a technical problem of legal drafting, but is also part of the implementation of the countrys legal politics. This study uses a literature reviewanalysis method. The results of the deepening of the literatureexplain that the reasons for urgent needs, and …


Politik Hukum Pemberian Grasi, Amnesti Dan Abolisi Sebagai Konsekuensi Logis Hak Prerogatif, Suyogi Imam Fauzi Sep 2021

Politik Hukum Pemberian Grasi, Amnesti Dan Abolisi Sebagai Konsekuensi Logis Hak Prerogatif, Suyogi Imam Fauzi

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

The granting of clemency, amnesty and abolition is a prerogative rights owned by the president based on Article 14 of the 1945 Constitution of the of Indonesia (UUD 1945). The long proses of implementing thegranting of clemency, amnesty and abolition after independence to the post-amendment of the UUD 1945 produce a lesson forIndonesia regarding the law shall be correspond in treating prisoners rights properly in accordance with Human Rights. There is a differences regarding the way of granting clemency which is more dynamically developing beside amnesty and abolition is still at a sustain of stagnation even after the amendment UUD …


Politik Hukum Rancangan Undang-Undang Cipta Kerja Disektor Lingkungan Hidup Dan Kehutanan (Suatu Telaah Kritis), Wahyu Nugroho, Erwin Syahruddin Sep 2021

Politik Hukum Rancangan Undang-Undang Cipta Kerja Disektor Lingkungan Hidup Dan Kehutanan (Suatu Telaah Kritis), Wahyu Nugroho, Erwin Syahruddin

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Draft Law on Cipta Kerja using the omnibus law method in the environment and forestry sector needs to be tested in the current constitutionalism of the environment. In this article, the author will focus on environmental and forestry issues in the content of the Draft Law on CiptaKerja with the formulation of the problem, how is the critical review of the material contained in the Draft Law on Cipta Kerja inthe environment and forestry sector? and what are the implications of the material content regulated in the DraftLaw on Cipta Kerja in the environment and forestry sector?The results of his …


Rekonstruksi Relasi Antar Lembaga Legislasi Di Indonesia, Sutan Sorik Sep 2021

Rekonstruksi Relasi Antar Lembaga Legislasi Di Indonesia, Sutan Sorik

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

This study discusses the reconstruction of relations between legislative institutions in Indonesia. This study aims to find the ideal relations of the Regional Representative Council(DPD), the House of Representatives (DPR), and the President in the formation of laws in Indonesia, as an effort to produce laws that have efficacy and usefulness. The type of research used in this study is normative juridical research. From the analysis found that the authority of the DPD is constitutionally only optional and has no imperative power, which then has implications for the relations between the DPD and the DPR and the President in shaping …


Analisis Yuridis Kedudukan Narapidana Sebagai Justice Collaborator, Bambang Sugiri, Nurini Aprilianda, Hanif Hartadi Sep 2021

Analisis Yuridis Kedudukan Narapidana Sebagai Justice Collaborator, Bambang Sugiri, Nurini Aprilianda, Hanif Hartadi

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

This article aims to examine the inmates position as a justice collaborator in the disclosure of organized crime that can assist law enforcement officers. This is againstthe backdrop of crown witnesses who are often used in proving criminal cases but are judged to be in violation of human rights. The difficulty of disclosure of organized crime is that the perpetrators involved in organized crime are bound by the oath of silence (omerta). Information from inmates related to crime networks he has committed, facilitates the disclosure of organized crime by law enforcement officers. This paper is based on the results of …


Politik Hukum Program Keluarga Berencana Di Indonesia, Aditya Rahmadhony, Mardiana Dwi Puspitasari, Maria Gayatri, Iwan Setiawan Sep 2021

Politik Hukum Program Keluarga Berencana Di Indonesia, Aditya Rahmadhony, Mardiana Dwi Puspitasari, Maria Gayatri, Iwan Setiawan

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Regime or government change has specificlegal political characteristics, including the Political Law of Family Planning. Each period of government has different views and policies on the implementation of the national family planning program as one of the programs in population control in Indonesia. This study aims to determine the effect of legal politics on the success of the family planningprogram in Indonesia by analyzing statutory regulations in the form of policy rules relating to the family planning program at each government period. The research method used is juridical-normative research through a literature review approach by analyzing policies in the form …


Urgensi Prinsip Non-Diskriminasi Dalam Regulasi Untuk Pengarus-Utamaan Kesetaraan Gender, Anisatul Hamidah Sep 2021

Urgensi Prinsip Non-Diskriminasi Dalam Regulasi Untuk Pengarus-Utamaan Kesetaraan Gender, Anisatul Hamidah

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Discrimination against women seems to have become part of the human history and development because it has happened since years ago until now.Therefore,the issue of discrimination against women is still interesting and becomes an important topic to discuss both at the global level and in Indonesia. Efforts to minimize the existence of discrimination against women have actually been carried outby establishing global consensus listed in various legal instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). These instruments explicitly state the obligation of countries to …


Perilaku Ramah Air Dalam Perspektif Hukum(Studi Peraturan Daerah Dki Jakarta Dan Kota Depok Terkait Sumber Daya Air), R. Ismala Dewi, Aad Rusyad Nurdin Sep 2021

Perilaku Ramah Air Dalam Perspektif Hukum(Studi Peraturan Daerah Dki Jakarta Dan Kota Depok Terkait Sumber Daya Air), R. Ismala Dewi, Aad Rusyad Nurdin

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Various water resource problems that occur in Indonesia, including in DKI Jakarta and surrounding cities, such as flooding, drought, raw water crisis, river water pollution, have an impact on decreasing water availability. This is partly due to the unfriendly behavior of the community in using water, especially those in water catchment areas. Therefore, it is necessary to manage waterto maintain the sustainability of water availability so as to provide fair benefits to the community. Given these objectives and the existence of complex water problems, it requires adequate regulation. A rule that is not only to overcome the act of destroying …


Fungsi Akta Notaris Dalam Lisensi Hki: Perspektif Fidusia, Dian Cahayani, Merlin Swantamalo Magna Sep 2021

Fungsi Akta Notaris Dalam Lisensi Hki: Perspektif Fidusia, Dian Cahayani, Merlin Swantamalo Magna

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

This study aims to analyse the function of a notarial deed in an Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) license based on a fiduciary perspective. This type of research is normative legal research by examining secondary data sourced from the principles and theories and laws and regulations. The method of data collection is done by studying literaturesuch as regulations, books, documents or other writings to support this research. The collected data is thenanalyzed qualitatively using data analysis methods. Based on the results of the study it can be concluded that the notary has the authority in making the deed of fiduciary guarantee …


Pandemi Covid-19: Force Majeure Dan Hardship Pada Perjanjian Kerja, Nindry Sulistya Widiastiani Sep 2021

Pandemi Covid-19: Force Majeure Dan Hardship Pada Perjanjian Kerja, Nindry Sulistya Widiastiani

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

In the civil law system, there are force majeure and hardship concepts which is related with situation when debtors unable to fulfill their contract obligations. Covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia causes employers’ difficulties in order to fulfill their work agreement obligations, such as payingtheir workers wages and Religious Holiday Allowances. In the context of fulfilling work agreement obligations, force majeure dan hardship concepts could not be found in the Indonesia’s Manpower Law. This conceptual article aims to analyse the chance of using force majeure and hardship concepts in the implementation of work agreement during covid-19 pandemic. The analysis uses conceptual approach …


Pendekatan Keadilan Integratif Dalam Membangun Institusi Publik Yang Legitim, Tri Harnowo, Alavi Ali Sep 2021

Pendekatan Keadilan Integratif Dalam Membangun Institusi Publik Yang Legitim, Tri Harnowo, Alavi Ali

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Public institutions have a very important role in providing public services in order to fulfill basic needs and the rights of every citizen, therefore the formation and operation must have public legitimacy. This paper discusses conceptual ideas in establishing legitimate public institutions based on the integrative justice principle, by taking Rawlss proscedural justice, Habermass communication theory and Lind’s perceptive justice as theoritical framework. The results of this study provide a concept of legitimate public institutions where in its formation and operatioan must fulfill the principles of participatory, constitutionality, universality, accessibility, efficiency, partiality, dialectic, deliberative, care, respect and explanatory.


Mengkaji Penerapan Sanksi Pidana Dalam Pencegahan Penyebaran Covid-19 Di Indonesia, Aliyth Prakarsa, Dadang Herli, Rena Yulia Sep 2021

Mengkaji Penerapan Sanksi Pidana Dalam Pencegahan Penyebaran Covid-19 Di Indonesia, Aliyth Prakarsa, Dadang Herli, Rena Yulia

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

The police in handling policies that are applied in an emergency period use criminal sanctions, meanwhile, the police also need to provide education and legal protection for the community when there are repressive efforts from the police in enforcing government policies through the Chief of Polices Declaration. The specific target to be achieved is to examine the application of the Chief of Polices Declaration in the application of the contents of the edict that contains criminal sanctions and examine its effectiveness in its application. The method used in this study is a normative and empirical legal research method. Normative research …


Surat Edaran Sebagai Instrumen Administrasi Negara Di Masa Pandemi Covid-19, Fitriani Ahlan Sjarif, Efraim Jordi Kastanya Sep 2021

Surat Edaran Sebagai Instrumen Administrasi Negara Di Masa Pandemi Covid-19, Fitriani Ahlan Sjarif, Efraim Jordi Kastanya

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Since Indonesia entered a period of health emergencies caused by the outbreak ofthe Covid-19, the Indonesian government has attempted to develop various legal instruments to regulatethe behavior of the Indonesian people. One of the instruments used is a circular letter. This paper tries to examine the normative juridical use of circular letters as an instrument of state administration during this pandemic. In legislation science and administrative law theory,a circular letter is a piece of legislationthat should be used as an official note to warn and remind, notto regulate.In practice, there are several problematic Circular Letters which are used to regulate …


Penerapan Pertanggungjawaban Pidana Korporasi Dalam Berbagai Putusan Pengadilan, Muhammad Fatahillah Akbar Sep 2021

Penerapan Pertanggungjawaban Pidana Korporasi Dalam Berbagai Putusan Pengadilan, Muhammad Fatahillah Akbar

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

By the development of criminal law in Indonesia, the corporate criminal responsibility has been introduced in many Acts. In the practices, there are criminal court decisions which sentenced corporations. This article aims to comprehensively examine how corporate criminal responsibility is implemented in various court decisions. It is found that aggregation theory, which corporate criminal responsibility is based on the actions of some people in the corporation scope, has been applied in most cases. Howeverm the weakness of the aggregation theory, in environment crimes, only corporation which was responsible and most organizers were not. On the other hand, in the corruption …


Status Hukum Penjelasan Undang-Undang Berdasarkan Sistem Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Indonesia, Ilham Fajar Septian, Ali Abdurahman Sep 2021

Status Hukum Penjelasan Undang-Undang Berdasarkan Sistem Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Indonesia, Ilham Fajar Septian, Ali Abdurahman

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

The law explanationis interpretation of norms contained in the body of the law. However, its existence as part of the law promulgatesthe unclear status of the lawexplanation as a mere interpretation or also as a binding legal norm. This has been further emphasized by the Constitutional Court Decision whichchanges its stance in judicial review to the law explanation. Therefore, issues regarding the legal status of the law explanationand the extent to which the Constitutional Court can judicial review tothe law explanationneed to be resolved. This research is a normative juridical research through literature study with historical, statutory, case, conceptual, and …


Tinjauan Yuridis Terhadap Perlindungan Anak Dalam Ruang Siber Di Indonesia, Muhammad Rafifnafia Hertianto Sep 2021

Tinjauan Yuridis Terhadap Perlindungan Anak Dalam Ruang Siber Di Indonesia, Muhammad Rafifnafia Hertianto

Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan

Indonesia high internet development and penetration rate make the child as user in a vulnerable position tocyberspace threat. Ironically Indonesia until this moment has no specific law or technical mechanism that can guarantee child security and fulfill child rights. In the current situation the number of criminal reports which utilize internet as its medium arehigh and keep on increasing over the year. This research aim to analyze the concept of child protection in cyberspace based on existing regulations on child protection. This research uses normative juridical methods and secondarydata which is then analyzedto state conclusion and recommendation. Based on the …


Rethinking Immigration Enforcement, Peter L. Markowitz Sep 2021

Rethinking Immigration Enforcement, Peter L. Markowitz

Articles

As the nation turns the page away from the dark chapter of President Trump's relentless assault on immigrants, it is time to take stock of the nation's unprecedented immigration enforcement regime. During its relatively short existence, the Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency (ICE) has deported more than twice as many people as were deported in the entire previous history of the United States. The human and fiscal costs of ICE's mass deportation agenda are astronomical, and there is almost universal agreement across the political spectrum that the United States' immigration enforcement apparatus is badly broken. That, however, is where the …


Call For Action: Provinces And Territories Must Protect Our Genetic Information, Leah Hutt, Elaine Gibson, Erin Kennedy Sep 2021

Call For Action: Provinces And Territories Must Protect Our Genetic Information, Leah Hutt, Elaine Gibson, Erin Kennedy

Dalhousie Law Journal

The Genetic Non-Discrimination Act (GNDA), passed by Parliament in 2017, seeks to protect Canadians’ genetic information. The GNDA establishes certain criminal prohibitions to the use of genetic information and also amends federal employment and human rights legislation to protect against genetic discrimination. However, we argue that the GNDA alone is insufficient to protect Canadians given constitutional limitations on the powers of the federal government. Areas of profound importance relating to genetic discrimination are governed by the provinces and territories. We identify three key areas of provincial/territorial jurisdiction relevant to protection against genetic discrimination and outline the applicable legislative environments. We …


R. C. Bissonnette And The (Un)Constitutionality Of Consecutive Periods Of Parole Ineligibility For A Life Sentence: Why The Qcca Got It Right And Why Section 745.51 Should Never Be Re-Written, Adelina Iftene Sep 2021

R. C. Bissonnette And The (Un)Constitutionality Of Consecutive Periods Of Parole Ineligibility For A Life Sentence: Why The Qcca Got It Right And Why Section 745.51 Should Never Be Re-Written, Adelina Iftene

Articles, Book Chapters, & Popular Press

This article reviews the constitutional arguments upheld by the QCCA in Bissonnette and weighs them against the challenges that trial judges have encountered in applying s. 745.51 since 2012. By drawing on a qualitative review of cases in which s. 745.51 has been applied, as well as Charter principles, sentencing case law, and international practices, this article posits that the QCCA was correct in its approach to s. 745.51, both in finding it unconstitutional and in finding that the provision should not be read down to render it constitutional. This article advances the central argument that, in the context of …


The State's Monopoly Of Force And The Right To Bear Arms, Robert Leider Aug 2021

The State's Monopoly Of Force And The Right To Bear Arms, Robert Leider

Northwestern University Law Review

No abstract provided.


The Second Amendment In A Carceral State, Alice Ristroph Aug 2021

The Second Amendment In A Carceral State, Alice Ristroph

Northwestern University Law Review

No abstract provided.


Analisis Yuridis Pemutusan Kontrak Kerjasama Pengadaan Barang Atau Jasa Secara Sepihak Antara Kontraktor Kontrak Kerjasama Industri Hulu Minyak Dan Gas Dengan Pelaksana Kontrak, Satria Winisuddha Jul 2021

Analisis Yuridis Pemutusan Kontrak Kerjasama Pengadaan Barang Atau Jasa Secara Sepihak Antara Kontraktor Kontrak Kerjasama Industri Hulu Minyak Dan Gas Dengan Pelaksana Kontrak, Satria Winisuddha

"Dharmasisya” Jurnal Program Magister Hukum FHUI

in the implementation of services in a procurement contract for goods or service, parties that require services and goods are represented by the Pejabat Pembuat Komitmen (PPK), while the parties that provide the goods or services are called vendors. In the particular case of the Upstream Oil and Gas Industry, the ones who act as the Pejabat Pembuat Komitmen are the Cooperative Contract Contractor, What is meant by a Cooperative Contractor is that the company are the ones producing the upstream oil and gas. The process of agreement between the contractor and the contract executor must begin with agreement between …


Kewenangan Pelaksanaan Perizinan Investasi Oleh Pemerintah Daerah Berdasarkan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Jul 2021

Kewenangan Pelaksanaan Perizinan Investasi Oleh Pemerintah Daerah Berdasarkan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan

"Dharmasisya” Jurnal Program Magister Hukum FHUI

Peraturan perundangan- undangan Indonesia terhadap Pemerintahan daerah telah menganut sistem desentralisasi yang mana daerah telah mendapatkan kewenangan yang lebih besar untuk mengatur sendiri pemerintahannya, Adapun kewenangan propinsi, Kabupaten dan Kota, berdasarkan Pasal 13 dan Pasal 14 UU No 23 Tahun 2014, dapat digolongkan kepada urusan wajib yang menjadi kewenangan pemerintahan daerah dan urusan pemerintahan yang bersifat pilihan. Dalam pengaturannya setidaknya terdapat 31 sektor pemerintahan yang merupakan urusan pemerintahan yang di- desentralisasikan ke daerah baik yang terkait dengan urusan yang bersifat wajib untuk menyelenggarakan pelayanan dasar maupun urusan yang bersifat pilihan untuk menyelenggarakan pengembangan sektor ekonomi yang menjadi unggulan dari daerah. …


Akibat Hukum Yang Ditimbulkan Oleh Masa Depan Organisasi Perdagangan Regional, Rossa Amanda Santika Jul 2021

Akibat Hukum Yang Ditimbulkan Oleh Masa Depan Organisasi Perdagangan Regional, Rossa Amanda Santika

"Dharmasisya” Jurnal Program Magister Hukum FHUI

Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) are a prominent future of multilateral trading system. The number of RTAs has been increasing and this trend will be further strengthened by the many RTAs being proposed and those currently under negotiation the impasse in the Doha Round exacerbates the gap between the preferential and the MFN paths to trade liberalization. The proliferation of RTAs presents WTO Members with challenges and opportunities; the promotion of free trade through preferential agreements can foster trade liberalization and benefit economic development by integrating developing countries into the world economy; yet the development of complex networks of non-MFN trade …


Pencabutan Hak Memilih Dan Dipilih Terhadap Narapidana Tindak Pidana Korupsi Dalam Jabatan Publik, Rona Puspita Jul 2021

Pencabutan Hak Memilih Dan Dipilih Terhadap Narapidana Tindak Pidana Korupsi Dalam Jabatan Publik, Rona Puspita

"Dharmasisya” Jurnal Program Magister Hukum FHUI

The phenomenon of the proliferation of public officials and political figures who have been caught up in corruption cases has caused enough efforts by law enforcement officials to stop it. Article 10 letter b number 1 of the Criminal Code states that additional sanctions can be in the form of revocation of certain rights. This study aims to determine the regulation regarding revocation of the right to vote and be elected in public office as an additional crime for perpetrators of corruption in terms of human rights perspective. This research used descriptive analytical, which describes the facts in the form …


Implikasi Mengenai Pencabutan Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 27 Tahun 2009 Tentang Pedoman Penetapan Izin Gangguan Di Daerah Sebagaimana Telah Diubah Dengan Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 22 Tahun 2016 Terhadap Peraturan Daerah Provinsi Dki Jakarta Nomor 15 Tahun 2011 Tentang Perizinan Tempat Usaha Berdasarkan Undang-Undang Gangguan Jul 2021

Implikasi Mengenai Pencabutan Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 27 Tahun 2009 Tentang Pedoman Penetapan Izin Gangguan Di Daerah Sebagaimana Telah Diubah Dengan Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 22 Tahun 2016 Terhadap Peraturan Daerah Provinsi Dki Jakarta Nomor 15 Tahun 2011 Tentang Perizinan Tempat Usaha Berdasarkan Undang-Undang Gangguan

"Dharmasisya” Jurnal Program Magister Hukum FHUI

On March 29 2017, the Government issued a regulation of the Minister of Home Affairs of Republic of Indonesia Number 19 of 2017 concerning the revocation of regulation of the Minister of Home Affairs Number 27 of 2009 about the Guidelines for Determination of Disturbance Permit in Regions that were approved as amended by Minister of Home Affairs Regulation Number 27 of 2009 about Guidelines Establishment of Disturbance Permit in the Regions. The Government assesses that regulation of the Minister of Home Affairs Number 27 of 2009 on the guidelines for the Establishment of Disturbance Permit in the Region is …


Implikasi Undang-Undang Nomor 30 Tahun 2014 Tentang Administrasi Pemerintahan Terhadap Upaya Hukum Luar Biasa Dalam Sengketa Pertanahan, Rini Wulandari Jul 2021

Implikasi Undang-Undang Nomor 30 Tahun 2014 Tentang Administrasi Pemerintahan Terhadap Upaya Hukum Luar Biasa Dalam Sengketa Pertanahan, Rini Wulandari

"Dharmasisya” Jurnal Program Magister Hukum FHUI

As stated in the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia that the Indonesian state is a state based on the rule of law (rechtstaat). Indonesia as a state of law tends to be positivist, by creating laws and regulations as one of the fundamental instruments in running the country. The government regulates and restricts officials as well as citizens to act through legislation in order to materialize the country's goals. These restrictions are intended so that the authorities do not act arbitrarily because it has the potential in causing legal uncertainty and threats to justice acquired by the citizens. Meanwhile, …