Engineering Commons^™

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (Saf) From Used Cooking Oil (Uco) In Egypt: Opportunities And Challenges., Lamiaa Abdallah

Mansoura Engineering Journal

Global aviation sector contributes nearly 2.5% of global CO2 emissions. Aviation is hard-to-decarbonize sector due to the high energy densities required for aircraft. Commercial aviation is fueled by kerosene-based jet fuel. Alternatives for this carbonbased fuel include electric batteries, hydrogen fuel, and SAF. Electric batteries have very low energy densities. Hydrogen would require a complete change of the aviation system, including fuel & airport infrastructure. SAF is the only viable option in the short to medium term. SAF is produced from sustainable feed-stocks (like agricultural oils), with no embodied carbon. Existing airplanes can use traditional fuel blended with up to …

An Adaptive Immersive Training Framework For Miner Self-Escape Readiness In Underground Mining Emergencies, Muhammad Azeem Raza, Samuel Frimpong, Saima Ghazal

Mining Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Underground mining environments are complex and hazardous operations where emergencies continue to happen. Underground mine emergencies require rapid, high-stakes decision-making under conditions of uncertainty, stress, and limited visibility. Conventional mine emergency training largely relies on instruction-based approaches which provide insufficient exposure to the cognitive and behavioral demands of real underground emergency situations. There has been an identified need to train miners for knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs). This study proposes an Adaptive Immersive Training Framework (AITF), a cognitively grounded architecture that integrates cognitive task analysis (CTA), KSAOs, and situational awareness assessment for miner self-escape training and readiness. The …

Investigation Of Material Properties Of Thermoplastic And Thermoset Polymer Materials At Cryogenic Temperatures Using Molecular Dynamics, Swapnil S. Bamane, Sagar Patil, Khatereh Kashmari, Benjamin D. Jensen, Brett A. Bednarcyk, Evan J. Pineda, Jeffery Hinkley, Ozgur Keles, Jin Ho Kang, Gregory Odegard

Michigan Tech Publications

Cryogenic fluids, such as liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, are critical for space operations as rocket fuel and life support. The fluids need to be contained in tanks that can withstand the effects of cyclic thermal and pressure loading throughout their lifecycle. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are prime candidates for these tanks because of their low mass, which is important for fuel savings. Although advanced PMC systems have been developed for a wide range of engineering applications, insight is still needed to identify optimal polymer matrix materials for cryogenic structural applications. The objective of this study is to use molecular …

The Impact Of Human Myoblasts On Macrophage Polarization In A Coculture Model, Elisabeth Ann Stodola

Biomedical Engineering

Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD) is characterized by the buildup of atherosclerotic plaque in the lower extremities that occludes blood flow, and affects over 200 million people worldwide. Without effective treatment, PAD can lead to claudication, ischemia, ulcers, and gangrene. PAD causes more amputations in the United States than any other condition, and for severe cases that require revascularization, procedures benefit fewer than 50% of patients. This demonstrates a clear need for alternative therapies. Potential therapies for PAD target expansion of collateral blood vessels around the area of occlusion – a process called arteriogenesis to compensate for loss of blood flow …

Move Fast And Don’T Break Things: Collaborative Privacy Governance In Higher Education, Tyler Schroder, Chad Fenner

Research & Publications

Student-developed applications increasingly replicate or replace official university platforms, often prioritizing speed over security and privacy. This “shadow IT” ecosystem emerges from gaps in institutional tools and is amplified by AI-assisted development, which can introduce insecure defaults. These informal systems risk exposing FERPA‑protected or sensitive institutional data, as seen in student‑built directory and club‑information apps that redistributed restricted information more permissively than intended. While most universities lack clear governance mechanisms for student developers, Yale’s structured, student‑specific data‑use policy offers a notable model. This paper examines these risks and proposes a collaborative, API‑first framework that supports innovation while enforcing privacy, security, …

Feasibility Of Using Recycled Waste Plastic In Concrete Pavements In Nebraska, Amasi Hajahja, Jamilla Teixeira, George Morcous

Nebraska Department of Transportation: Research Reports

Waste plastic (WP) is a growing environmental concern due to its non-biodegradable nature, large-scale production, and harmful impact on natural resources. With nearly 75% of WP in the U.S. ending up in landfills, effective recycling strategies are urgently needed. In parallel, the limited availability of natural aggregates highlights the need for alternative materials in concrete construction. This study investigates the feasibility of using recycled waste plastic (RWP) in concrete mixtures, both as aggregates and fibers for rigid pavement applications in Nebraska. Concrete mixtures were prepared by partially replacing natural fine aggregates with recycled plastic aggregates (RPA) at replacement levels of …

Failure Of Infrastructure Systems: A Multilevel Network Analysis Of Decision-Making And Influential Behavioral Constructs, Tamima Elbashbishy, Radwa Eissa, Islam H. El-Adaway, Jeffrey S. Russell

Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

High-profile failures of infrastructure systems are often attributed to design flaws. However, these incidents can also stem from a broader set of interconnected decisions made by stakeholders involved in the planning, management, and operation of these systems. While ethical guidelines and professional codes are designed to prevent such failures, cognitive biases may undermine adherence. Previous research efforts, primarily focused on ethical violations using case studies, have overlooked how behavioral ethics constructs and professional conduct could drive these breaches. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by (1) conducting an analysis of three system failure cases at the micro, meso, and macro …

Methodology For Surface Defect Assessment In 3d Concrete Printing Using Computer-Vision And Ultrasonic Testing Considering Structural Build-Up, Seongho Han, Eunjong Ahn, Myoungsu Shin, John S. Popovics, Kamal H. Khayat

Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

This study quantifies how interlayer time gaps and mixture rheology jointly influence interfacial integrity and mechanical performance in 3D concrete printing (3DCP). Two mixtures incorporating identical binders, but differing limestone fineness (4 and 50 μm) were printed with interlayer delays of 0, 2, and 5 min, corresponding to stacking rates of approximately 9, 0.5, and 0.2 m/h. The finer limestone mixture exhibited higher plastic viscosity (13.2 vs. 11.5 Pa s) and faster structural buildup (58 vs. 38 Pa/min), resulting in accelerated early stiffening. Deposition yield stress derived from buildup measurements remained low for 0–2 min (1400–1500 Pa for the higher-thixotropy …

New Insights Into Dynamic Evolution Of Colloidal Network Structure During Early-Age Hardening Of Cementitious Materials, Hengrui Liu, Kaiyin Zhao, Shipeng Zhang, Hanghua Zhang, Shuangshuang Liu, Lucen Hao, Hongyan Ma, Kamal Khayat, Chi Sun Poon

Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

The evolution of microstructure in cementitious materials during their transition from fluid to solid state plays a critical role in determining their ultimate mechanical strength and overall performance. This hydration stage primarily involves a dynamic densification process occurring within the colloidal network. However, the field of cement-based materials currently lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework and associated parameters capable of effectively characterizing the specific structural regions within this network. In this study, we propose an Improved Particle Linkage (IPL) theory for describing the strength, types, and quantities of particle linkages within colloidal network. The IPL theory classifies the internal network structure …

Design And Validation Of A Wearable Respiratory Protection System For Wildland Firefighters, Oliver Pilon

Master's Theses

Wildland and Wildland–Urban Interface firefighters are routinely exposed to hazardous smoke with fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and other toxic combustion products. Existing protective gear has significant limitations and shortcomings for these conditions. Respirators with tight-fitting facepieces make it difficult to breathe and speak. On the other hand, self-contained breathing apparatuses are too heavy, have a limited duration of use, and do not work well with long wildland fire scenes, while smaller protective equipment like N-95’s and gaiters provide very little protection. These constraints contribute to low adoption rates and prolonged occupational exposure.

This thesis presents the …

Quantitative Comparison Of Different Ultrasound Simulation Approaches For Civil Engineering Applications, Fabian Dethof, Simon Schmid, Jean-Marie Henault, Thomas Schumacher, Sylvia Kessler, Salvador Villalobos

Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty Publications and Presentations

Interpreting ultrasonic waveforms is often challenging, especially in the presence of tilted boundaries that introduce multiple reflections, mode conversions, and echoes. To analyze such complex signal patterns, wavefield simulations provide a valuable tool. To ensure confidence in the simulation results, the accuracy of the numerical method is crucial. Another consideration when using simulations is their computational expense. Especially in civil engineering applications, large structures need to be investigated, which may not be feasible given the available resources. In this study, different numerical methods and software implementations commonly used for simulations in civil engineering are compared, including the Elastodynamic Finite Integration …

Synergist Free Solvent Extraction Of Lithium From Alkaline Salt Lake Brines Using Thenoyltrifluoroacetone In Octanol, Shayan Abrishami, Amir Razmjou

Research outputs 2022 to 2026

The growing demand for lithium in energy storage applications necessitates the development of efficient and selective extraction technologies for recovering lithium from alkaline brines containing high concentrations of competing alkali metals. This study presents an investigation of a thenoyltrifluoroacetone (TTA)-octanol solvent extraction system for selective lithium recovery from high‑sodium brines, utilizing 1-octanol as an environmentally benign diluent without requiring any synergistic co-extractant. Through systematic optimization of key operational parameters including pH, extractant concentration, scrubbing conditions, and stripping agent concentration, the system demonstrated excellent performance with lithium extraction efficiency of 67.5% ± 3.4% and a maximum separation factor of 28.0 ± …

Navigation Beyond Wayfinding: Robots Collaborating With Visually Impaired Users For Environmental Interactions, Shaojun Cai, Nuwan Janaka, Ashwin Ram, Janidu Shehan, Yingjia Wan, Kotaro Hara, David Hsu

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Robotic guidance systems have shown promise in supporting blind and visually impaired (BVI) individuals with wayfinding and obstacle avoidance. However, most existing systems assume a clear path and do not support a critical aspect of navigation—environmental interactions that require manipulating objects to enable movement. These interactions are challenging for a human–robot pair because they demand (i) precise localization and manipulation of interaction targets (e.g., pressing elevator buttons) and (ii) dynamic coordination between the user’s and robot’s movements (e.g., pulling out a chair to sit). We present a collaborative human–robot approach that combines our robotic guide dog’s precise sensing and localization …

Efficient Active Training For Deep Lidar Odometry, Beibei Zhou, Zhiyuan Zhang, Zhenbo Song, Jianhui Guo, Hui Kong

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Robust and efficient deep LiDAR odometry models are crucial for accurate localization and 3D reconstruction, but typically require extensive and diverse training data to adapt to diverse environments, leading to inefficiencies. To tackle this, we introduce an active training framework designed to selectively extract training data from diverse environments, thereby reducing the training load and enhancing model generalization. Our framework is based on two key strategies: Initial Training Set Selection (ITSS) and Active Incremental Selection (AIS). ITSS begins by breaking down motion sequences from general weather into nodes and edges for detailed trajectory analysis, prioritizing diverse sequences to form a …

A Borophosphate Glass Doped With Cobalt Oxide Improves Skeletal Muscle Structure And Function In Myopathic Mice, Jacob A. Kendra, Alexandra G. Naman, Rebekah L. Blatt, Carla D. Zingariello, Richard K. Brow, Steven S. Segal, Aaron B. Morton

Materials Science and Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Skeletal muscle myopathy remains a significant cause of disability with limited treatment strategies. Advancements in tissue engineering have led to the development of borophosphate bioactive glasses (BPBGs) capable of enhancing skeletal muscle structure and function. Using a mouse model of severe myopathy (D2.mdx), we investigated muscle force, regeneration, angiogenesis and inflammation at 14, 70 and 140 days post-treatment (dpt). Tibialis anterior (TA) muscles of D2.mdx mice that received a single injection of cobalt oxide-doped BPBG (CoO-TRIM) particles exhibit greater active force, myofiber size, and regeneration through 70 dpt compared to control D2.mdx mice injected with Saline. Vascular endothelial growth factor …

Applying Two-Stage Risk-Based Market Structures For Energy Hub-Based Plug-In Electric Vehicles Using Information Decision Gap Theory And A Hybrid Recurrent Convolutional Network, A. Heidari, R. C. Bansal, R. Bo

Electrical and Computer Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

This paper investigates the optimal operation of an energy hub engaged in both day-ahead and real-time trading. A two-stage optimization framework Information Gap Decision Theory (IGDT) for day-ahead bidding and stochastic programming with Monte Carlo scenarios for real-time recourse is applied. Risk-neutral, risk-averse, and risk-taking strategies are considered to capture different risk preferences. The hub integrates combined heat and power, renewable energy, plug-in electric vehicles, and vehicle-to-grid and grid-to-vehicle technologies. Price and load forecasts are generated using a hybrid recurrent convolutional network (HRCN). Results highlight the trade-off between risk management and economic performance: costs are 16.5 % higher in the …

Advancing Activated Carbon Production: Utilizing Pine Pruning Biochar Via Induction Heating With Co2and Iron-Based Catalysts, Ahmet Erdem, Muthanna H. Al-Dahhan, Ahmed Jasim

Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

This study introduces an induction heating approach for producing activated carbon from biochar obtained by thermal degradation of pine pruning waste from timber-related industries, using CO₂ and iron-based catalysts as activation agents. Activation experiments were performed using a 10 kW high-frequency induction system (28–40 kHz) under continuous CO₂ flow (15 mL min⁻¹), with electric current intensities of 200, 300, 400, and 500 A (corresponding to 700–1100°C) and durations of 30, 60, and 90 min, employing 45 g of iron-based catalysts (Fe–Ni–Ti–C, 85:6:3:6 wt.%) per 3 g biochar (15:1 w/w). Mass loss increased from 13.7 % (200 A, …

Sustainable Pathways For Fish Waste Oil Valorization Into Biofuel: Process Synthesis And Case Study, Hany A. Elazab, Radhi H. Alazmi, Abdelrahman El-Bagalaty, Hossam Tammam, Mahmoud El-Sayed, Mohamed Omar, Fathi Shokry, Mamdouh A. Gadalla, Fatma H. Ashour, Thokozani Majozi

Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Biodiesel is a promising, sustainable alternative to fossil fuels such as petrol and diesel. Currently, biodiesel can be produced from edible plant oils and non-edible sources and wastes. Notably, fish waste oil is a sustainable resource for transesterification reactions to produce biodiesel. This research proposes a general process design methodology to investigate the potential of biodiesel production from fish waste oil as a pathway for waste-to-energy. The methodology integrates Pinch Analysis principles and process simulation to optimize the energy efficiency of a process design. Real data are collected on fish waste from fish industries in Egypt, focusing on three regions …

Electroactive Pvdf/Ti3c2tx Mxene Functionalized Nanofiber Mats With High Surface Potential For High-Efficiency Indoor & Outdoor Submicron Pm(0.3-2)Μm Filtration, Ashish Kakoria, Mirza Muhammad Zaid, Aamir Iqbal, Mahsa Moradi, Lina Zheng, Guang Xu

Mining Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Fine PM0.3-2.0 rapidly penetrates the respiratory system and causes health problems. Commercial filters remove 0.3 μm particles at ∼95 % efficiency but impose high pressure drops that make breathing difficult. We fabricate a novel electrospun PVDF-Ti₃C₂Tx nanofiber mat for PM0.3–2.0 filtration. Where a high electric field stretched PVDF and PVDF-Ti₃C₂Tx solutions into ultrafine fibers that were collected as porous nanofibrous mats. PVDF was chosen for its electroactive behavior and high dielectric constant, enabling efficient electrostatic filtration. The incorporation of Ti₃C₂Tx MXene enhances surface charge density and interfacial polarization, …

Applying Direct Numerical Simulations To Investigate Wave Forcing Against A Vertical Wall, Hunter Boswell, Frank D. Han, Gaurav Savant, Guirong Yan, Wouter Mostert

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Current engineering standards lack the ability to predict the peak impact forces of breaking waves impinging directly upon coastal structures. In this study solitary waves impacting vertical and tapered walls are investigated. To capture the detailed physics of the wave profile that impacts the wall, two-dimensional direct numerical simulations are applied to model the wave traveling over a simplified bathymetry consisting of an initially uniform depth, followed by a uniform beach ramp and then terminating in a uniform depth inshore region and vertical wall. Such an approach can simulate wave runup on land and then the impact with the vertical …

The Effect Of Si And Zr On The Formation Of Al3x And V-Phase In A 6005a Alloy With Sc—Part 1: Alloy Design And Heat Treatment Selection, Eli A. Harma, Timothy Langan, Paul Sanders

Michigan Tech Publications

Adding Sc to 6xxx series alloys has led to inconsistent results due to the formation of the high-temperature, thermodynamically stable V-phase (AlSc2Si2). Thermo-Calc single-axis equilibrium and phase diagram calculations were employed to identify V-phase formation with varying Si and Zr concentrations, indicating that increasing Zr and decreasing Si lowered the V-phase equilibrium volume fraction. Increasing Zr also shifted the V-phase equilibrium to higher Si concentrations. To access real-world influences of Zr and Si, four compositions were cast with different Si and Zr concentrations: a high-Si, low-Zr alloy; a medium-Si, medium-Zr alloy; a low-Si, high-Zr alloy; and a baseline alloy without …

On Signifiable Computability: Part Iii: A Note On Unnameable Functions On Natural Numbers, Vladimir A. Kulyukin

Computer Science Faculty and Staff Publications

A writing system 𝔚 on an alphabet 𝒜 is a tuple (ℜ,𝔐), where ℜ is a finite set of text formation rules and 𝔐 is a finite rule application mechanism that generates texts on 𝒜. A natural writing system forms natural language texts on an alphabet such as Sanskrit on Devanagari. An artificial writing system generates formal language texts on an alphabet such as Lisp on Unicode. Let ℕ ={0,1,2,…} be the set of natural numbers. A function on natural numbers 𝑓 :ℕ^𝑘 ↦ ℕ, 0 < 𝑘 ∈ ℕ, is nameable by a writing system on an alphabet if, and only if, the system can generate a text on the alphabet that names f and no other function. We show that there exist functions on natural numbers unnameable in principle in that they cannot be named by any writing system on any alphabet. Our results imply the following computability-theoretic hierarchy of functions on natural numbers: computable ⊊ partially computable ⊊ nameable ⊊ 𝔉, where 𝔉 is the set of functions on ℕ.

Elevating The Underrepresented And Marginalized Using Experiences In Stem (Lumens): A Stem Diversity And Inclusion Initiative, Robert Cobb Jr, Paula E. Faulkner, Deiadra Modlin, Obinna Chiekezi, Victoria Cobbold, Madison Beaudoin

Journal of Research Initiatives

The study offered a 5-week summer immersion program to address the shortage of students from underrepresented populations enrolling in degree programs and seeking careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The study also addressed the importance of offering summer immersion programs to close the achievement gap. A quantitative descriptive design was used to gather data from participants related to STEM lessons during the program. Gender, grade level, and race served as the demographic variables. The study included 21 secondary students in grades 9–12. Pre- and post-tests assessed participants' knowledge gain regarding STEM lessons. Data analyzed with SPSS version 29 …

Mechanistic Framework Of Wood Decomposition In Post-Storm Vegetative Debris Piles Using Continuous Quality Theory, Thomas T. Lee

Master's Theses

Storm events generate significant quantities of vegetative debris composed of wood, branches, twigs, and other organic materials. Efficient post-storm resource recovery and carbon accounting depend on reliable predictions of decomposition within these large, heterogeneous debris piles. While small-scale wood decay is well studied, decomposition dynamics within multi-layer debris piles remain poorly characterized, limiting municipalities' ability to estimate material longevity and resource recovery potential.

To address this gap, this study develops the WOOD_DK (Wood Organic Oxidation and DegraDation Kinetics) model, a preliminary, exploratory one-dimensional multilayer decomposition framework simulating coupled temperature, moisture, oxygen, and carbon dynamics in MATLAB. Microbial decomposition follows Continuous …

A Simulation Framework For Edge Lane Roads And Bicycle Shared Roadways, Nick Sauciur

Master's Theses

Edge Lane Roads, also referred to as Advisory Bike Lanes, are a shared roadway treatment that designates space for cyclists while allowing flexible use of the roadway by motorists. They are commonly applied on lower speed corridors and can be used both where roadway width is limited and where agencies seek to manage vehicle speeds, clarify cyclist positioning, or improve shared roadway operations. The configuration provides visually designated space for cyclists while allowing motorists to encroach into that space when yielding to opposing traffic. Although interest in these facilities is growing in North America, quantitative tools for evaluating their operational …

Portable Ice Cube Maker, Ayden Ziegler, Emiliano Hansen, Wyatt Engdahl, Dane Hansen

Mechanical Engineering

This Final Design Report outlines the senior design project undertaken by a team of mechanical engineering students at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, for the development of a portable backpacking ice cube maker. The project aims to design, build, and test a lightweight, compact device that produces ice cubes for backpackers in remote outdoor environments. The goal is to create a functional prototype that is durable, user-friendly, and suitable for backcountry use. This document details background research, project objectives, and project plan, and current design status.

Dvr Service Evaluation And Fee Sufficiency Study, Mallory Brown, Andrew Martin, Jeeyen Koo, Jennifer Walton

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The Kentucky Transportation Cabinet’s (KYTC) Department of Vehicle Regulation (DVR) administers numerous fees and taxes. Many administered by the two divisions in DVR — Motor Vehicle Licensing (DMVL) and Motor Carriers (DMC) — have remained unchanged for many years despite salary increases, the adoption of more complex and expensive technologies, and inflation raising administrative costs. This report provides in-depth assessments of 10 fees and taxes (selected by division administrators). Six are administered by DMVL — certificate of title, duplicate title, vehicle title history report, additional registration fee, reflectorized license plate fund, and trailer registrations — and four are managed by …

The Illusion Of Causality In Llms: A Developmentally Grounded Analysis Of Semantic Scaffolding And Benchmark–Capability Mismatches, Daisuke Akiba

Publications and Research

Recent benchmarks increasingly report that large language models (LLMs) exhibit human-like causal reasoning abilities, including counterfactual inference and intervention planning. However, many such evaluations rely on domains that are heavily represented in training data and embed strong semantic cues, raising the possibility that apparent causal competence may reflect semantic pattern recombination rather than structure-sensitive causal reasoning. Drawing on human developmental theories of causal induction, this perspective argues that genuine causal understanding requires robustness to novelty and reliance on conditional structure rather than semantic familiarity. To illustrate the testability of this claim, the paper includes a pilot demonstration using synthetic causal …

Data-Driven Non-Precipitation Echo Removal Of Nexrad Radars Based On A Random Forest Classifier Using Polarimetric Observations And Goes-16 Data, Munsung Keem, Bong Chul Seo, Witold F. Krajewski, Sangdan Kim

Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Highlights: What are the main findings? A Random Forest-based model using dual-polarimetric radar features achieves >99% accuracy in classifying precipitation and non-precipitation echoes. Multi-scale spatial variability features enhance discrimination between genuine precipitation and spurious echoes. Fusion of GOES-16 infrared satellite data with NEXRAD radar effectively removes non-precipitation echoes with precipitation-like signatures, including wind turbine clutter. A CAPPI scan strategy improves near-radar precipitation detection by recovering valid echoes misclassified at the lowest elevation due to side-lobe interference and limited sampling volume. What are the implications of the main findings? The model's robustness to noise and overfitting, combined with minimal hyperparameter tuning, …

Understanding Human Arm Stiffness Modulation In Overground Phri: The Roles Of Kinematics, Perturbation, And Trunk Sway, Mohsen Mohammadi Beirami, Sambad Regmi, Devin Michael Burns, Yun Seong Song

Psychological Science Faculty Research & Creative Works

This study examines human arm kinematics during overground physical human-robot interaction (pHRI). Previous work showed humans adjust arm stiffness with changing trajectory uncertainty, but the roles of arm kinematics and muscle activation remained unclear. Building on a preliminary study, we analyzed arm movements with more participants (10 individuals) to achieve more reliable findings and examined two potential influences that arose in the preliminary study: the robot's perturbation effect (a brief hand push) and left-to-right trunk sway. Using a linear mixed-effects model, we evaluated the effects of participant, block, and trajectory condition on arm angles. Results showed minimal kinematic contribution to …