Health and Physical Education Commons^™

Adopting Stuart Hall’S “Race, The Floating Signifier” As A Conceptual Framework Within Aquatic Research And Education, Kurt J. Cordice

International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education

During his 1997 lecture at Goldsmiths College in London, Stuart Hall, renowned for his contributions to sociology and cultural studies, offered his argument that the concept of race functions as a Floating Signifier. In this essay, Stuart Hall’s Race, the Floating Signifier is presented as a strong conceptual framework to support more accurate and effective positioning of race as an important consideration within aquatic research and education. Evidence from a range of disciplines, including historical research, is presented to establish both the importance and challenge of race within aquatic research and education. This evidence is also used to demonstrate …

Building Swimming Skills In A Community Based Program For Black Youth: An Evaluation, Tyler Lennon Md, Mph, Ashley Hayes Mph, Leonardo Barrera Mph, Amy Hill Ms, Mph, Andy Miner, Michelle Macy Md, Ms

International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education

Black youth in the United States disproportionately experience fatal drowning at rates up to five times higher than their white peers. Eliminating these inequities requires new approaches that address historical and structural barriers of learning to swim. The objective of this study was to evaluate the three-week long swimming component of a community-based discovery program to empower Black youth in Evanston, IL. Participants were Black youth ages 8-10 years enrolled in summer 2023 and 2024. Swim skills were assessed by instructors using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence (PSPWC). Caregiver surveys, collected post-intervention, also assessed perceived changes in swim …

An Innovative Approach Addressing Childhood Drowning: Making Use Of Collegiate Aquatic Facilities And Expertise, Gennette Cordova, Natasha Lloyd, Chezik Tsunoda

International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education

The silent epidemic of childhood drowning, and the racial disparities associated with it require scalable and innovative approaches that both break cycles of exclusion and circumvent our societal tendency to overlook drowning as a matter in need of urgent resolution. No More Under, a Seattle-based water safety organization whose mission is to eradicate childhood drowning, has launched the Swim Safely Series. The series is a national program uniquely poised to overcome the various barriers associated with racial and socioeconomic drowning disparities by tapping into underutilized collegiate aquatic spaces and merging water safety with mentorship and social intervention.

An Examination Of The Experiences Of An African American Male Diver On A Power Four Swim Team: An Elite Interview, Steven N. Waller Ph.D., Tiffany M. Quash Ph.D.

International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education

Despite the incremental increase in the number of Black people who are learning to swim, the number of Black divers has not kept pace. In the NCAA Database, swimmers and divers were not segmented; thus, they all appear in the category of “swimming” by race and sex. When viewing the 2024 Division I NCAA Demographics Database, 89 (.02%) of 4307 student-athletes participating in swimming were Black women. For men, the data is equally dismal, revealing that 81 (.03%) of 2,608 student-athletes who were identified as swimmers were Black. The purpose of this research note is to examine the developmental experiences …

Methylation Of The Dat1 Dopamine Transporter Gene In Combat Sport Athletes: Associations With Impulsivity And Reward Sensitivity, Milena Lachowicz, Remigiusz Recław, Aleksandra Suchanecka, Krzysztof Chmielowiec, Elżbieta Grzywacz, Jolanta Chmielowiec, Kinga Łosińska, Anna Grzywacz

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, modulate behavioral traits, including impulsivity and reward sensitivity. The dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) plays a key role in dopaminergic function and is associated with self-regulation, attention, and the trait of addiction. This study summarized the DAT1 methylation status in patients practicing combat sports and its association with impulsivity, ADHD symptoms, and consequence sensitivity. One hundred control subjects were recruited using the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS), the ADHD scale, and the Opportunity Response Scale. DAT1 methylation was measured using the bisulfite ionization method. A correlation analysis was performed with the comparison group. Athletes …

Physical Activity, Cultural Tourism And Social Inclusion For Persons With Down Syndrome, Dana Ioana Cristea, Anca Cristina Pop, Corina Florina Tătar, Raluca Buhaș, Dariusz Jacek Olszewski-Strzyżowski, Mirela Ștef

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: Individuals with Down Syndrome (DS) need customized attention. By providing an inclusive environment and tailored cultural support, meaningful and enjoyable tourism experiences can be created for them. Objectives: The aim of this study is to assess the daily energy expenditure of DS individuals after undertaking a walking tour and the impact on their physical activity level. Methods: In the current study, three questionnaires were completed by the DS participants and their parents to assess the walking tour satisfaction level and social integration, the daily energy expenditure as a result of walking depending on an adapted cultural route, and the …

The Effect Of The Actn3 Gene Variation On Physically Active Individuals' Susceptibility To Muscle Injury, Agata Leońska-Duniec, Piotr Kabelis, Agata Rzeszutko-Bełzowska

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: The R577X polymorphism (rs1815739) in the ACTN3 gene, which encodes α-actinin-3, results in deficiency of the functional protein in the muscles of the XX carriers, what could potentially impair muscle fiber function and increase susceptibility to injuries. Thus, this study aimed to assess the relationship between the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and non-contact muscle injury risk in a physically active Caucasians cohort. Mate-rials and Methods: The study included 142 physically active individuals (26 females and 116 males) who experienced either single (n = 26) or multiple (n = 116) non-contact muscle injuries. The control group included 163 participants (47 females …

Electromyography Normalization And Assessment Methods For Muscle Activity: A Systematic Review And Meta-Analysis, Dariusz Tadeusz Skalski, Magdalena Prończuk, Kinga Łosińska, Ewelina Lulińska, Joanna Motowidło, Justyna Żurowska-Cegielska, Piotr Aschenbrenner, Mieszko Bartosz-Jefferies, Adam Maszczyk

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: Electromyographic (EMG) normalization is essential for accurately measuring muscle activity across different populations and tasks. Various methods, including Maxi-mum Voluntary Isometric Contraction (MVIC) and Recurrence Quantification Analysis (RQA), have been employed to improve measurement reliability. However, discrepancies in results across studies necessitate a comprehensive review of normalization techniques. Objective: This report analyzed 40 research studies to evaluate EMG normalization and assessment methods, focusing on their reliability, applicability, and effectiveness across healthy and clinical populations. Methods: The studies employed a range of normalization techniques, including MVIC, submaximal contractions, task-specific approaches, and advanced methods such as RQA and Pre-Fatigue Maximal Voluntary …

Effects Of Different Loads Used In Post-Activation Potentiation Exercises On Sprint And Vertical Jump Performance Of Young Amateur Soccer Players, Emre Karaday, Yusuf Köklü, Erhan Işıkdemir, Bilal Utku Alemdaroğlu, Özlem Köklü

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different loads used in post-activation potentiation (PAP) exercises on the vertical jump and sprint performance of young amateur soccer players. Materials and methods: Twelve young amateur soccer players (age: 16.3 ± 1.2 years; height: 172.6 ± 3.88 cm; body weight: 63.2 ± 6.7 kg; training experience: 2.3 ± 1.4 years) participated voluntarily. The half squat exercise was performed in unloaded conditions and at three different intensities (L1:80%, L2: 90%, and L3: 100% of one-repetition maximum [1RM]), and its effects on players' countermovement jump (CMJ) and 30 m sprint …

P.L.A.Y. For All Pilot: Effects Of A Community-Based, Inclusive After-School Program On Physical Activity And Motor-Skill Outcomes, Allison R. Tsuchida, Karl-Richard Hennebach, Erin E. Centeio

International Journal of Physical Activity and Health

After-school programs for physical activity (PA) can contribute to helping children and youth achieve the suggested 60 minutes a day of PA. Previous research also suggests that developing motor competency can positively impact long-term PA participation. Additionally, parent and peer support can help children and youth overcome barriers to PA participation. The primary purpose of this pilot research study was to determine the effects of an inclusive after-school program on PA levels and motor-skill outcomes for children with and without disabilities. A secondary purpose was to examine parental support for physical activity and children’s physical activity and motor skills. 38 …

Engaging In Movement At Work: Exploring Engagement And Physical Activity., Spencer A. Cavan

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

High levels of employee engagement provide organizations competitive advantages such as increased customer satisfaction, profits, and employee productivity. Despite potential benefits, the number of engaged employees is declining and organizations need to find innovative ways to enhance engagement. Emerging evidence suggests workplace physical activity may generate organizational benefits extending beyond health improvement. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate perceptions of engagement among employees participating in a physical activity intervention at work. A qualitative design, guided by phenomenology, examined perceptions of workplace physical activity and perceived levels of engagement, as well as constraints related to involvement among university …

Addressing Head Injuries In High School Football: An Assessment Of Best Practices And Challenges In The Area Of Concussions As Held By New Mexico Activities Association High School Varsity Football Head Coaches And Athletic Directors, Alonzo Maestas

Health, Exercise, and Sports Sciences ETDs

Youth sports participation in the United States offers children and adolescents opportunities for physical activity, skill development, social interaction, and personal achievement. However, with sports comes the risk of injury, including concussions. Concussions can have serious long-term consequences such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). In response to the risks of concussions, New Mexico enacted a concussion law, NM Stat 22-13-31. In addition to this law, the New Mexico Activities Association (NMAA) and National Federation of High School Associations (NFHS) have also given guidance on how to manage concussions.

However, there is a gap in the literature concerning concussion education, best …

The Effectiveness Of Myofascial Massage Of The Gastrocnemius Muscle On The Threshold And Pain Tolerance., Karolina Pawlikowska, Aleksandra Jażdżewska, Jakub Kortas

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: The aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of the myofascial self-massage technique of the gastrocnemius muscle in determining the possibility of increasing pain tolerance and individual pain threshold, which could increase exercise efficiency, allow for greater training loads and accelerate post-exercise regeneration, as well as to determine the subjective assessment of pain intensity using the VAS scale. Material and Methods: 85 students at Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport took part in the research, including 37 women and 48 men aged 19–25 years. (M = 20.7; SD = 1.07). The test consisted of applying pressure …

“What’S Good For The Goose Just Might Be Good For The Gander”: A Proposal For Self-Study Of Practice (S-Sp) Methodology In Apa Research, Tomás Alyward

International Symposium of Adapted Physical Activity and International Symposium on Physical Activity and Visual Impairment and Deafblindness

Introduction Self-study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practice (S-STTEP) has been applied in higher education settings for more than forty years (Russell, 2022). (McPhail, 2012). In particular, the application of this research methodology in Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) has significantly enhanced the professional development (PD) of academics in this domain (Lunenberg et al., 2020). It has also increased the scholarly outputs associated with PD in this field (McPhail, 2012). While professional formation in APA and APE is closely aligned with PETE, this research method has not featured in APA publications.

Methodology: A case study in APA teaching practice was …

The N-Pact Factor, Replication And Power Associated With Quantitative Research In Physical Activity And Health, Angelina Haidar, Jeffrey J. Martin, Adam J. Martin, Sarah Rogers, Fatemeh Dehghan, Eva Prokesova

International Journal of Physical Activity and Health

Physical Activity (PA) and health science researchers often face challenges related to sample size, which can impact the reliability and generalizability of study findings. The purpose of the current paper is to address these issues by discussing key statistical concepts: effect size and Type I and Type II errors, with a specific focus on examining statistical power and sample size using studies from the Disability and Health Journal (DHJ). We examined research articles published in DHJ over a 15-year period (2008–2022), covering 62 issues and analyzing a total of 1,177 articles. Our analysis revealed that the median sample sizes …

Sports And Physical Activity Of Poles In The Context Of Good Health And Well-Being As A Sustainable Development Goal, Elżbieta Biernat, Monika Piątkowska, Robert Podstawski

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Investing in physical activity (PA) is vital for achieving sustainable development goals. We examine PA trends in Poland using data from Eurobarometer surveys conducted in 2013, 2017, and 2022. In 2022, 64.6% of Poles did not participate in sports, and 41.8% did not engage in non-sport PA. There is a concerning trend of increasing inactivity in sports (Chi²_2022/2017 = 34.64; p < 0.001; Chi²_2017/2013 = 56.98; p < 0.001) and non-sports PA (Chi²_2022/2017 = 18.3, p < 0.01 and Chi²_2017/2013 = 16.95, p < 0.01). Participation in sport and PA is influenced by individual, inter-personal, environmental, political, and global factors. Notably, there is an upward trend in interpersonal (e.g., club membership, volunteering), environmental (e.g., PA in parks/nature, at home), and political (e.g., dissatisfaction with local government actions) factors. Government intervention is crucial and requires: (1) establishment of an institution for leadership and advocacy of PA, (2) adoption of a cross-sectoral approach for a coordinated change, and (3) increased in-vestment in monitoring systems to track the impact of interventions. These actions are essential for fostering a more active and healthier population in Poland.

Analysis Of Personality Traits, Intelligence Level And Ability To Cope With Stressful Situations And Their Impact On The Evaluation Of Judo Fights, Maciej Kostrzewa, Jan Supinski, Slawomir Kownacki, Miłosz Drozd, Anna Ścisłowska-Czarnecka, Jarosław Markowski, Jan Pilch, Alicja Markiel, Marcin Żak, Adam Maszczyk

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: The aim of the study presented in this article was to conduct an analysis that would answer the research question: do personality traits such as extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, intelligence level, and ability to cope with stressful situations correlate with the assessment of judo fights? Materials and Methods: Ninety individuals participated in the study, including international-class referees, national-class referees, coaches, and active judo athletes. The study used a correlational analysis approach to examine the relationships between personality traits and fight assessment criteria in judo. Results: The results indicate that in the referees' group, there is a …

No Evidence For Pape-Induced Jumping Performance Enhancement Following Isometric And Treadmill Warm-Ups In Team Sport Athletes, Artur Terbalyan, Adam Maszczyk, Robert Krzysztof Roczniok

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: This study aimed to determine whether an isometric PAPE‐based warm-up could enhance jumping performance compared to a traditional treadmill jogging warm-up in team sport athletes. The primary focus was on assessing neuromuscular activation and performance indicators such as jump height and force asymmetry. Materials and Methods: Fifty-three athletes from basketball, volleyball, handball, and soccer participated in a controlled, parallel-group experiment. Participants performed either a unilateral isometric warm-up protocol – comprising two sets of four exercises per leg– or a 5‐minute treadmill jogging session, with jump performance assessed via countermovement jump tests on dual force plates. A split-plot ANOVA was …

Changes In Insulin, Leptin, Resistin And Irisin Levels And Their Associations With Blood Pressure After An 8-Week Supervised, Online “Hiit Mama” Program Vs. Self-Performed Moderate-To-Vigorous Physical Activity During Pregnancy - A Randomized Controlled Trial, Anna Szumilewicz, Junjiang Sun, Rita Santos-Rocha, Jan Mieszkowski, Andrzej Kochanowicz

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

We aimed to determine changes in insulin, leptin, resistin, and irisin levels and their associations with blood pressure (BP) during pregnancy, following an 8-week high-intensity interval training (HIIT) or a self-performed moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). The study involved 54 Caucasian women in uncomplicated, singleton pregnancy (age 32 ± 4 years, week of gestation 24 ± 4, mean ± SD). They were randomly allocated to the 8-week supervised, online “HIIT Mama” program (HIIT group, n = 34) or educational intervention and self-performed MVPA (EDU group, n = 20). All participants maintained normotension throughout the study. The HIIT program in-duced a statistically …

The Evolution Of Sprinting Performance: Technological And Regulatory Influences From 1976 To 2024, Dariusz Tadeusz Skalski, Magdalena Prończuk, Kinga Łosińska, Ewelina Lulińska, Joanna Motowidło, Petr Stastny, Adam Maszczyk, Grzegorz Trybek

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: This study examines the progression of sprinting performance across the 100m, 200m, and 400m events from 1976 to 2024, highlighting the influence of technological advancements and regulatory changes. Over the past decades, sprinting has been significantly shaped by developments in track surfaces, footwear technology, training methodologies, and regulatory frameworks. Understanding these factors is essential for assessing how sprint times have evolved and what future trends might emerge. Materials and methods: Utilizing a comprehensive dataset from international athletics federations, this research applies time series analysis, regression modeling, and variance testing to assess trends, gender disparities, and performance variability. Data sources …

Aging-Induced Increase In Top-Down Connectivity From Dlpfc To Sma/M1 And Decrease In Inter-Limb Motor Coordination During Standing Tasks, Jiahao Pan, Shuqi Zhang

International Journal of Physical Activity and Health

This study aimed to investigate the effects of aging on inhibitory control from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to the motor cortices and inter-limb coordination during dual task standing. Participants performed single-task and dual-task standing. Ground reaction force, center-of-pressure, muscle activity, and cortical activation were measured. The older group showed a greater effective connectivity index from the intra-hemispheric dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) to supplementary motor area (SMA) (right, p = 0.009; left, p = 0.003) and left DLPFC to right M1 (p = 0.020)than the young group across task conditions. Also, the older group had greater inter-tibialis anterior coherence at 15–35 …

The Origin Of Community As Experienced By Intercollegiate Athletes At Benedictine Institutions Of Higher Education: A Hermeneutical, Phenomenological Hybrid Study, Barbara Rezac

Dissertations and Doctoral Documents, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2023–

This study focuses on the phenomenon of community experienced at Benedictine colleges and universities and its impact on the faith, character, and human development of recent alumni who participated in intercollegiate athletics on campus. Benedictine education, based on the 1,500-year-old Rule of Saint Benedict, is guided by ten hallmarks which seek to build wisdom cultivated in community. This study specifically examines the extent of the lived experience of community through the lens of former intercollegiate athletes (alumni from the past ten years) and the perceived influence of the hallmarks on their post-graduate lives. I contacted mission leaders, athletic directors, and …

A Winning Strategy: Sports For Advancing Health In Underserved Communities, Chia-Liang Dai

Community Engagement Expo Research Posters

Prevailing disparities in health outcomes underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions tailored to the unique needs of underserved students. An after-school sports program plays a vital role in promoting comprehensive school health by offering structured team sports alongside social-emotional lessons and academic support.

The Role Of Age, Experience, And Physical Fitness In Technical Performance In Karate: An Observational Analysis, Rui Miguel Silva, Joaquim Ferreira, Georgian Badicu, Jarosław Muracki, Beata Pożarowszczyk-Kuczko, Adam Kawczyński

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: This study aimed to investigate the relationships between age, experience, anthropometric measures, physical fitness, and the quality of technical performance in karate practitioners. We conducted an observational cross-sectional study with 53 federated karate athletes, aged 5 to 55, affiliated with the Youth Karate Association Portugal. The participants were divided into age and experience groups to assess differences in anthropometric measures (body mass, height, BMI) and physical fitness (strength, power, flexibility). The technical performance of four specific karate techniques – kizami, gyaku zuki, mawashi geri, and ura mawashi geri – was evaluated using a custom-designed technical evaluation …

The Experiences Of Disabled People In Physical Education, Wesley J. Wilson (Editor), Justin A. Haegele (Editor)

Human Movement Studies & Special Education Faculty Books

Bringing together a set of first- person accounts of physical education from the perspectives of disabled children and adults, this book puts disabled people’s voices in the foreground.

The book provides a rich set of case study material that deepens our understanding of the experiences of disabled people and challenges students, researchers, and practitioners to reflect critically upon their own positionality. The first part of the book discusses the ways in which disability has been conceptualized, how the voices of disabled people have sometimes been marginalized, and how nondisability power has historically framed the narratives of disabled people in physical …

The Intensity Of 10-Minute Classroom Physical Activity Breaks In Elementary School Children, Jeffery J. Honas, Amanda N. Szabo-Reed, Joe Sherman, Anna Rice, Robert Montgomery, Ken Murfay, Richard A. Washburn, Joseph E. Donnelly

International Journal of Physical Activity and Health

This study examined the intensity of different physical activity (PA) breaks for elementary school children in a simulated classroom setting. Researchers compared the energy expenditure (Kcals/min, METs) of PA breaks developed for the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC-3) program, delivered via video or in-person, to commercially available GoNoodle^© videos. 71 children (age 9.0 ± 1.1 yrs., 47 males, 24 females, 18% minority) participated in 10-minute PA breaks. The intensity of activity breaks was assessed using a COSMED® K5 portable indirect calorimeter (weight ~ 1 kg) (COSMED®, Rome, Italy) and and portable accelerometer (ActiGraph GT3X+; ActiGraph LLC, Pensacola, FL) …

Profiling Competitive Malaysian Archers: Musculoskeletal Injuries And Related Risk Factors, Ambusam Subramaniam, Fariza Zainudin Fairus, Mon Redee Sut Txi

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Background: Archery requires precision, strength, stamina, and attention, yet musculoskeletal injury data is scarce. The study aimed to profile the musculoskeletal injuries and the associated risk factors among Malaysian archers. Methods: A cross-sectional approach was used to recruit 165 elite archers. The Standardized Nordic Questionnaire (SNQ), adapted risk factors questionnaire, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and Depression Anxiety Stress Questionnaire (DASS-21) were used to screen participants. Results: Shoulder (drawing arm) (54.5%), shoulder (bow arm) (56.4%), upper back (38.8%), lower back (38.2%), and neck (37.6%) musculoskeletal injuries were common. The injuries were reported during training (85.5%), accumulation/overuse injuries (72.1%), and sudden …

Spasticity And Pain And The Improvement Of Muscle Strength In Athletes With Partial Spinal Cord Injury, Dariusz Tadeusz Skalski, Kinga Łosińska, Magdalena Prończuk, Alicja Markiel, Jarosław Markowski, Jan Pilch, Joanna Motowidło, Petr Stastny, Adam Maszczyk

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

Spasticity and chronic pain are common secondary complications following spinal cord injury (SCI), significantly impacting functional recovery and quality of life. Robot-assisted gait training (RAGT) using the Lokomat has been proposed as an effective rehabilitation method to improve motor function and reduce these symptoms. However, the impact of training frequency on rehabilitation outcomes remains unclear, particularly in athletes and physically active individuals. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Lokomat training on spasticity reduction, pain alleviation, and improvements in gait function and lower limb muscle strength in athletes and physically active individuals with partial SCI. A total of 45 …

Assessment Of The Effect Of Classic Sports Massage On The Reduction Of Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness In The Rectus Abdominis, Dariusz Boguszewski, Cezary Kaaroud, Jakub Grzegorz Adamczyk

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of classic massage on the reduction of post-exercise pain in the rectus abdominis muscle. Twenty-eight people between 20 and 43 years of age (mean age 27.4) were qualified for the study. There were nine women and six men in Group 1 (experimental) and six women and seven men in Group 2 (control). All participants of the study qualified after in the initial interview they performed sit-ups, according to the guidelines of the International Physical Fitness Test. Group 1 was subjected to the convergence of classical sports massage (3 treatments). The …

Assessment Of The Reliability And Validity Of Simple And Complex Reaction Speed Tests In Mixed Martial Arts Athletes Using The Blazepod System, Jacek Polechoński, Jan Pilch, Alan Langer, Magdalena Prończuk, Jarosław Markowski, Adam Maszczyk

Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity

The main aim of the research was to evaluate the reliability and validity of measurements of simple and complex reaction speed using the BlazePod system in MMA athletes. Additionally, these motor skills for the right and left hands of the studied athletes were compared. The study involved 34 male professional MMA practitioners (training experience 7.0±4.0 years, age 26.5±5.3 years, body mass 76.9±9.8 kg, height 178.5±5.7 cm). The evaluation of reaction speed utilized the BlazePod^TM system and classic computer tests. The time from the activation of a light stimulus to the hand striking a glowing target in front of the …