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Articles 61 - 90 of 352
Full-Text Articles in Human Resources Management
Robustness, Sensitivity And Sampling Variability Of Pareto-Optimal Selection System Solutions To Address The Quality-Diversity Trade-Off, Wilfried De Corte, Paul Sackett, Filip Lievens
Robustness, Sensitivity And Sampling Variability Of Pareto-Optimal Selection System Solutions To Address The Quality-Diversity Trade-Off, Wilfried De Corte, Paul Sackett, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
In case that both the goals of selection quality and diversity are important, a selection system is Pareto-optimal (PO) when its implementation is expected to result in an optimal balance between the levels achieved with respect to both these goals. The study addresses the critical issue whether PO systems, as computed from calibration conditions, continue to perform well when applied to a large variety of different validation selection situations. To address the key issue, we introduce two new measures for gauging the achievement of these designs and conduct a large simulation study in which we manipulate 10 factors (related to …
Power And Negotiation: Review Of Current Evidence And Future Directions, Michael Schaerer, Laurel Teo, Nikhil Madan, Roderick I. Swaab
Power And Negotiation: Review Of Current Evidence And Future Directions, Michael Schaerer, Laurel Teo, Nikhil Madan, Roderick I. Swaab
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
This review synthesizes the impact of power on individual and joint negotiation performance. Although power generally has positive effects on negotiators’ individual performance (value claiming), recent work suggests that more power is not always beneficial. Taking a dyadic perspective, we also find mixed evidence for how power affects joint performance (value creation); some studies show that equal-power dyads create more value than unequal-power dyads, but others find the opposite. We identify the source of power, power distribution, and competitiveness as critical moderators of this relationship. Finally, we suggest that future research should move beyond studying alternatives in dyadic deal-making, identify …
Removing Situation Descriptions From Situational Judgment Test Items: Does The Impact Differ For Video-Based Versus Text-Based Formats?, Philipp Schäpers, Filip Lievens, Jan-Philipp Freudenstein, Joachim Hüffmeier, Cornelius J. König, Stefan Krumm
Removing Situation Descriptions From Situational Judgment Test Items: Does The Impact Differ For Video-Based Versus Text-Based Formats?, Philipp Schäpers, Filip Lievens, Jan-Philipp Freudenstein, Joachim Hüffmeier, Cornelius J. König, Stefan Krumm
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Recent research has shown that many text-based situational judgment test (SJT) items can be solved even when the situational descriptions in the item stems are not presented to test takers. This finding challenges the traditional view of SJTs as low-fidelity simulations that rely on ‘situational’ (context-dependent) judgment. However, media richness theory and construal level theory suggest that situation descriptions presented in a richer and more concrete format (video format) will reduce uncertainty about inherent requirements and facilitate the perception that the situation is taking place in the here and now. Therefore, we hypothesized that situational judgment would be more important …
The Profile Of The ‘Good Judge’ In Hrm: A Systematic Review And Agenda For Future Research, François S. De Kock, Filip Lievens, Marise P. Born
The Profile Of The ‘Good Judge’ In Hrm: A Systematic Review And Agenda For Future Research, François S. De Kock, Filip Lievens, Marise P. Born
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
In light of the pivotal importance of judgments and ratings in human resource management (HRM) settings, a better understanding of the individual differences associated with being a good judge is sorely needed. This review provides an overview of individual difference characteristics that have been associated with the accurate judges in HRM. We review empirical findings over >80 years to identify what we know and do not know about the individual difference correlates of being an accurate judge. Overall, findings suggest that judges' cognitive factors show stronger and more consistent relationships with rating accuracy than personality-related factors. Specific intelligences in the …
Covid-19 Hr Challenge: Lessons From Vigilant Singaporeans, Richard R. Smith
Covid-19 Hr Challenge: Lessons From Vigilant Singaporeans, Richard R. Smith
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Lessons from Singapore that may benefit global HR business leaders in caring for the health and well-being of the workforce during this challenging time.
Problem-Solving Or Self-Enhancement? A Power Perspective On How Ceos Affect R&D Search In The Face Of Inconsistent Feedback, Radina Blagoeva, Tom J. M. Mom, Justin J. P. Jansen, Gerard George
Problem-Solving Or Self-Enhancement? A Power Perspective On How Ceos Affect R&D Search In The Face Of Inconsistent Feedback, Radina Blagoeva, Tom J. M. Mom, Justin J. P. Jansen, Gerard George
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Firms consider multiple reference points simultaneously to assess performance, yet often these referents may be inconsistent in signaling success or failure. Consequently, decision makers use two contrasting decision rules when responding to inconsistent feedback: problem-solving or self-enhancement. So far, disparate theoretical logics and mixed evidence has limited our understanding about when decision makers may shift their attention from positive to negative aspects of inconsistent feedback or vice versa, and may increase or decrease their R&D search. We examine how different types of CEO power explain why some firms may respond to inconsistent feedback, i.e. positive performance feedback and negative prospects, …
Win-Win In Distributive Negotiations: The Economic And Relational Benefits Of Strategic Offer Framing, Michael Schaerer, Martin Schweinsberg, Nico Thornley, Roderick I. Swaab
Win-Win In Distributive Negotiations: The Economic And Relational Benefits Of Strategic Offer Framing, Michael Schaerer, Martin Schweinsberg, Nico Thornley, Roderick I. Swaab
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
In distributive negotiations, people often feel that they have to choose between maximizing their economic outcomes (claiming more value) or improving their relational outcomes (having a satisfied opponent). The present research proposes a conversational strategy that can help negotiators achieve both. Specifically, we show that using an offer framing strategy that shifts offer recipients’ attention to their reservation price (e.g., “How does my offer compare to your minimum price?”) leads to both (a) an assimilation effect whereby recipients make more favorable counteroffers (economic benefit) as well as (b) a contrast effect whereby recipients feel more satisfied with the negotiation (relational …
Situational Judgment Tests For Selection: Traditional Versus Construct-Driven Approaches, Paul A. Tiffin, Lewis W. Paton, Deborah O'Mara, Carolyn Maccann, Jonas W. B. Lang, Filip Lievens
Situational Judgment Tests For Selection: Traditional Versus Construct-Driven Approaches, Paul A. Tiffin, Lewis W. Paton, Deborah O'Mara, Carolyn Maccann, Jonas W. B. Lang, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Context: Historically, situational judgement tests (SJTs) have been widely used for personnel selection. Their use in medical selection in Europe is growing, with plans for further expansion into North America and Australasia, in an attempt to measure and select on ‘non-academic’ personal attributes. However, there is a lack of clarity regarding what such tests actually measure and how they should be designed, scored and implemented within the medical and health education selection process. In particular, the theoretical basis from which such tests are developed will determine the scoring options available, influencing their psychometric properties and, ultimately, their validity. Methods: The …
Performance Management: Quo Vadis?, Filip Lievens, Philipp Schapers, Christoph N. Herde
Performance Management: Quo Vadis?, Filip Lievens, Philipp Schapers, Christoph N. Herde
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Traditionally performance management has been described as a powerful tool in Human Resource Management (HRM) because it has potentially a wide array of application possibilities for various HR topics. However, the reality in practice is different. Various surveys reported that more than 90 percent of the performance management systems are unsuccessful. Further studies have shown that up to 75% of staff feel that their organization’s performance management system does not help them to improve their performance and is largely a waste of time (e.g., Capelli & Tavis, 2016; Pulakos, 2009). Economic analyses of the return on investment (as compared to …
Privacy At Work: A Review And A Research Agenda For A Contested Terrain, Devasheesh P. Bhave, Laurel H. Teo, Reeshad S. Dalal
Privacy At Work: A Review And A Research Agenda For A Contested Terrain, Devasheesh P. Bhave, Laurel H. Teo, Reeshad S. Dalal
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Privacy in the workplace is a pivotal concern for employees and employers. Employees expect to be in control of the personal information and access they provide to the organization. Employers, however, expect extensive information regarding their employees as well as extensive access to employees’ presence. The chasm between these two often competing expectations has been magnified by regulatory and technological trends. We begin the review by integrating viewpoints from multiple disciplines to disentangle definitions of privacy and to delineate the privacy contexts of information privacy and work environment privacy. We then identify the key stakeholders of privacy in the workplace …
Within-Person Job Performance Variability Over Short Timeframes: Theory, Empirical Research, And Practice, Reeshad S. Dalal, Balca Alaybek, Filip Lievens
Within-Person Job Performance Variability Over Short Timeframes: Theory, Empirical Research, And Practice, Reeshad S. Dalal, Balca Alaybek, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
We begin by charting the evolution of the dominant perspective on job performance from one that viewed performance as static to one that viewed it as dynamic over long timeframes (e.g., months, years, decades) to one that views it as dynamic over not just long but also short timeframes (e.g., minutes, hours, days, weeks)—and that accordingly emphasizes the within-person level of analysis. The remainder of the article is devoted to the newer, short-timeframe research on within-person variability in job performance. We emphasize personality states and affective states as motivational antecedents. We provide accessible reviews of relevant theories and highlight the …
I Don’T Want To Go Back: Examining The Return To Physical Workspaces During Covid-19, Zihan Liu, Drake Van Egdom, Rhona Flin, Omolola Adepoju, Ramanari Krishnamoorti
I Don’T Want To Go Back: Examining The Return To Physical Workspaces During Covid-19, Zihan Liu, Drake Van Egdom, Rhona Flin, Omolola Adepoju, Ramanari Krishnamoorti
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Objective: We study employee perspectives on return to physical workspaces to ultimately inform employers' and policy makers' decision making around the return to work during COVID-19. Methods: We tested the three-component conceptual model using survey data collected in the United States in May 2020 from samples of energy workers (N = 333). Results: Women, non-Caucasians, and employees living in multi-generational households were less willing to return. Concerns about childcare were negatively related to willingness to return, whereas organizational strategies for mitigating COVID-19 transmission at work were positively related to willingness to return. COVID-19 infections in an employees' network were also …
Climbing The Corporate Ladder And Within-Person Changes In Narcissism: Reciprocal Relationships Over Two Decades, Bart Wille, Joeri Hofmans, Filip Lievens, Mitja D. Back, Filip De Fruyt
Climbing The Corporate Ladder And Within-Person Changes In Narcissism: Reciprocal Relationships Over Two Decades, Bart Wille, Joeri Hofmans, Filip Lievens, Mitja D. Back, Filip De Fruyt
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Prior research demonstrated that narcissism fosters the attainment of higher managerial ranks in organizations. However, it is not known whether climbing the corporate ladder also fosters the development of narcissism over time. Whereas prior work consistently adopted a unidirectional perspective on narcissism and career attainment, this study presents and tests a bidirectional perspective, incorporating long-term development in narcissism in relation to and in response to long-term upward mobility. To this end, a cohort of highly educated professionals was assessed three times over a 22-year time frame. Extended latent difference score modeling showed that, over the entire interval, within-person changes in …
Leader Mindfulness And Employee Performance: A Sequential Mediation Model Of Lmx Quality, Interpersonal Justice, And Employee Stress, Jochen Reb, Sankalp Chaturvedi, Jayanth Narayanan, Ravi S. Kudesia
Leader Mindfulness And Employee Performance: A Sequential Mediation Model Of Lmx Quality, Interpersonal Justice, And Employee Stress, Jochen Reb, Sankalp Chaturvedi, Jayanth Narayanan, Ravi S. Kudesia
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
In the present research, we examine the relation between leader mindfulness and employee performance through the lenses of organizational justice and leader-member relations. We hypothesize that employees of more mindful leaders view their relations as being of higher leader-member exchange (LMX) quality. We further hypothesize two mediating mechanisms of this relation: increased interpersonal justice and reduced employee stress. In other words, we posit that employees of more mindful leaders feel treated with greater respect and experience less stress. Finally, we predict that LMX quality serves as a mediator linking leader mindfulness to employee performance—defined in terms of both in-role and …
Lifelong Learning: A Tri-Sector Responsibility For Ensuring Relevance, Richard Raymond Smith
Lifelong Learning: A Tri-Sector Responsibility For Ensuring Relevance, Richard Raymond Smith
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
When changes cause reduction or elimination of skilled employees, the impact on the business, employees, and local community can be significant. How do we work toward preventing these situations and who is responsible?
2019 Asia Insights: Building A Great Place To Work For All: The Untapped Power Of Gender Diversity In Asia, Richard Raymond Smith, Evelyn Kwek, Tyler Thorpe
2019 Asia Insights: Building A Great Place To Work For All: The Untapped Power Of Gender Diversity In Asia, Richard Raymond Smith, Evelyn Kwek, Tyler Thorpe
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Through this study, we hope to increase understanding of the context, considerations and practices to leverage the amazing diversity of our region. We hope to learn more about what makes a strong workplace culture, particularly in Asia. We turn our attention to the topic of diversity and inclusion, with a focus on gender diversity in the Asian workplace. This is one of the largest studies in Asia to highlight gender differences and evaluate how psychological safety, inclusion and belonging result in strong teamwork which in turn contributes to building high performing great workplaces.
What Do Consistency And Personableness In The Interview Signal To Applicants? Investigating Indirect Effects On Organizational Attractiveness Through Symbolic Organizational Attributes, Annika Wilhelmy, Martin Kleinmann, Klaus G. Melchers, Filip Lievens
What Do Consistency And Personableness In The Interview Signal To Applicants? Investigating Indirect Effects On Organizational Attractiveness Through Symbolic Organizational Attributes, Annika Wilhelmy, Martin Kleinmann, Klaus G. Melchers, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Personnel selection research has recognized the importance of providing applicants with both standardized (i.e., “consistent”) and individualized (i.e., “personable”) treatment during interviews. However, research has yet to examine the mechanisms underlying the effects of perceived consistency and personableness in the interview on applicants’ attraction to organizations. Drawing from signaling theory, we investigate how interview consistency and personableness impact organizational attractiveness. To this end, we developed a conceptual model that proposes that applicants interpret perceived interview consistency and personableness as signals about what the organization is like in terms of symbolic organizational attributes (organizational competence and benevolence, Lievens and Highhouse 2003), …
Authentic Leadership In The Digital Age, Richard R. Smith
Authentic Leadership In The Digital Age, Richard R. Smith
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Artificial intelligence algorithms are actively assessing our personality and behaviour based on our social media footprint with amazing accuracy – even after we have retired or died.
Taking Careful Stock Of The Chro Role, Richard Raymond Smith
Taking Careful Stock Of The Chro Role, Richard Raymond Smith
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Professor Richard R. Smith, of Singapore Management University, reveals some key insights into the burgeoning Chief HR Officer role.
Constructed Response Formats And Their Effects On Minority-Majority Differences And Validity, Filip Lievens, Paul R. Sackett, Jeffrey Dahlke, Janneke Oostrom, Britt De Soete
Constructed Response Formats And Their Effects On Minority-Majority Differences And Validity, Filip Lievens, Paul R. Sackett, Jeffrey Dahlke, Janneke Oostrom, Britt De Soete
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
The inflow of immigrants challenges organizations to consider alternative selection procedures that reduce potential minority (immigrants)-majority (natives) differences, while maintaining valid predictions of performance. To deal with this challenge, this paper proposes response format as a practically and theoretically relevant factor for situational judgment tests (SJTs). We examine a range of response format categories (from traditional multiple-choice formats to more innovative constructed response formats) and conceptually link these response formats to mechanisms underlying minority-majority differences. Two field experiments are conducted with SJTs. Study 1 (274 job seekers) contrasts minority-majority differences in scores on a multiple-choice versus a written constructed response …
Being Sensitive To Positives Has Its Negatives: An Approach/Avoidance Perspective On Reactivity To Ostracism, Ferris D. Lance, Shereen Fatimah, Ming Yan, Lindie H. Liang, Huiwen Lian, Douglas J. Brown
Being Sensitive To Positives Has Its Negatives: An Approach/Avoidance Perspective On Reactivity To Ostracism, Ferris D. Lance, Shereen Fatimah, Ming Yan, Lindie H. Liang, Huiwen Lian, Douglas J. Brown
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Workplace mistreatment is typically conceptualized as being exposed to a negative stimulus – for example, a threat, verbal abuse, or other forms of harassment. Consequently, we expect workplace mistreatment will have the greatest effect on individuals who are sensitive to the presence and absence of negative stimuli – or those with a strong avoidance temperament. Although this may be the rule for most mistreatment constructs, we argue that ostracism may be the exception. Using an approach/avoidance framework to highlight unique elements of ostracism, we build on the definition of ostracism as being the absence of an expected positive stimulus (i.e., …
Recruitment And Selection, Filip Lievens, Derek Chapman
Recruitment And Selection, Filip Lievens, Derek Chapman
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Few people question that recruitment and selection are key strategic domains in HRM. At the same time, recruitment and selection also have an image problem. First, recruitment and selection are often viewed as ‘old’ ingrained HRM domains. It seems like the traditional recruitment and selection procedures have been around for decades, which is at odds with the ever changing internal and external environment of organizations. Hence, practitioners often wonder whether there are any new research-based ways for recruiting and selecting personnel. Another image problem for recruitment and selection is that a false dichotomy is often created between so-called macro HR …
Explore Alternatives Now! - Performance Mgmt In The Multi-Dimensional Digital World, Richard Raymond Smith
Explore Alternatives Now! - Performance Mgmt In The Multi-Dimensional Digital World, Richard Raymond Smith
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Earlier, business was not quite as dynamic, employment was intended for the long-term, and the idea of pay linked to performance was quite a dependable model. But as we examine the tradition of performance management in light of today's digital business models, there are a number of new questions that emerge.
The Employment Relationship: Key Elements, Alternative Frames Of Reference, And Implications For Hrm, John W. Budd, Devasheesh P. Bhave
The Employment Relationship: Key Elements, Alternative Frames Of Reference, And Implications For Hrm, John W. Budd, Devasheesh P. Bhave
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
The employment relationship is the connection between employees and employers through which people sell their labor. This might consist of an immigrant day laborer paid by the bushel to pick fruit in the hot sun, a tech industry freelancer completing episodic gigs without ever meeting a boss, a salaried manager who has been working in an air-conditioned office for the same company for 40 years, or innumerable other situations. Irrespective of situation, all employees and employers have fundamental interests they pursue through the employment relationship, all forms of this relationship are mediated by labor markets and states, and each instance …
Mapping Cultural Tightness And Its Links To Innovation, Urbanization, And Happiness Across 31 Provinces In China, Roy Y. J. Chua, Kenneth Huang, Mengzi Jin
Mapping Cultural Tightness And Its Links To Innovation, Urbanization, And Happiness Across 31 Provinces In China, Roy Y. J. Chua, Kenneth Huang, Mengzi Jin
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
We conduct a 3-y study involving 11,662 respondents to map cultural tightness—the degree to which a society is characterized by rules and norms and the extent to which people are punished or sanctioned when they deviate from these rules and norms—across 31 provinces in China. Consistent with prior research, we find that culturally tight provinces are associated with increased governmental control, constraints in daily life, religious practices, and exposure to threats. Departing from previous findings that tighter states are more rural, conservative, less creative, and less happy, cultural tightness in China is associated with urbanization, economic growth, better health, greater …
The Differential Impact Of Interactions Outside The Organization On Employee Well-Being, Devasheesh P. Bhave, Freyr Halldórsson, Eugene Kim, Alexandru M. Lefter
The Differential Impact Of Interactions Outside The Organization On Employee Well-Being, Devasheesh P. Bhave, Freyr Halldórsson, Eugene Kim, Alexandru M. Lefter
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
We examine two different perspectives of interactions outside the organization: the relational work design perspective and the emotional labour perspective. The relational work design perspective suggests that interactions outside the organization have favourable outcomes for employees, whereas the emotional labour perspective suggests that such interactions have adverse outcomes for employees. Our goal is to reconcile findings from these two research streams. In Study 1, using data from employees working in diverse occupations, we find that interactions outside the organization have a positive indirect effect on employee well‐being via task significance, and a negative indirect effect on employee well‐being via surface …
Specific Job Search Self-Efficacy Beliefs And Behaviors Of Unemployed Ethnic Minority Women, Greet Van Hoye, Edwin A. J. Van Hooft, Jolien Stremersch, Filip Lievens
Specific Job Search Self-Efficacy Beliefs And Behaviors Of Unemployed Ethnic Minority Women, Greet Van Hoye, Edwin A. J. Van Hooft, Jolien Stremersch, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
This two‐wave field study draws from social cognitive theory to investigate the specific job search self‐efficacy beliefs and behaviors of unemployed ethnic minority women in the Netherlands. We go beyond prior job search research that predominantly used white samples and conceptualized job search self‐efficacy and behavior as global, unidimensional constructs. We found that networking self‐efficacy and Internet self‐efficacy were the main predictors of ethnic minority women’s job search behaviors. Moreover, the more time they spent on contacting employment agencies and looking at job ads the more job offers they received. Finally, time spent on job ads was more positively related …
Head Above The Parapet: How Minority Subordinates Influence Group Outcomes And The Consequences They Face, Burak Oc, Michael R. Bashshur, Celia Moore
Head Above The Parapet: How Minority Subordinates Influence Group Outcomes And The Consequences They Face, Burak Oc, Michael R. Bashshur, Celia Moore
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
The vast majority of research on power, social, and minority influence treats those who are recipients of powerholders’ decisions (i.e., subordinates) as an undifferentiated group, overlooking how recipients may respond in unique ways to the decisions that affect them. In this paper we examine the role of minority subordinates in shaping how powerholders allocate resources. We also explore how psychological distance between the minority subordinate and powerholder moderates this relationship, as well as the individual consequences minority subordinates face for articulating their unique opinions. In three experimental studies, we show that even as a lone voice, the feedback of a …
Breaking The Cycle Of Abusive Supervision: How Disidentification And Moral Identity Help The Trickle-Down Change Course, Shannon G. Taylor, Matthew D. Griffith, Abhijeet K. Vadera, Robert Folger, Chaim R. Letwin
Breaking The Cycle Of Abusive Supervision: How Disidentification And Moral Identity Help The Trickle-Down Change Course, Shannon G. Taylor, Matthew D. Griffith, Abhijeet K. Vadera, Robert Folger, Chaim R. Letwin
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Studies show that abusive leader behaviors "trickle down" to lower organizational levels, but this research ignores that many abused supervisors do not perpetuate abuse by harming their own subordinates. Drawing on social-cognitive theory and related research, we suggest abused supervisors might defy rather than emulate their managers' abusive behavior. Specifically, we predicted that some abused supervisors-namely, those with strong moral identities-might in effect "change course" by engaging in less abuse or demonstrating ethical leadership with their subordinates to the extent they disidentify with their abusive managers. Across 2 experiments (n = 288 and 462 working adults, respectively) and a field …
Ecological Rationality: Fast-And-Frugal Heuristics For Managerial Decision Making Under Uncertainty, Shenghua Luan, Jochen Reb, Gerd Gigerenzer
Ecological Rationality: Fast-And-Frugal Heuristics For Managerial Decision Making Under Uncertainty, Shenghua Luan, Jochen Reb, Gerd Gigerenzer
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Heuristics are often viewed as inferior to “rational” strategies that exhaustively search and process information. Introducing the theoretical perspective of ecological rationality, we challenge this view and argue that under conditions of uncertainty common to managerial decision making, managers can actually make better decisions using fast-and-frugal heuristics. Within the context of personnel selection, we show that a heuristic called Δ-inference can more accurately predict which of two job applicants would perform better in the future than logistic regression, a prototypical rational strategy. Using data from 236 applicants at an airline company, we demonstrate in Study 1 that despite searching less …