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Full-Text Articles in Human Resources Management

Unleashing Excellence: Strengthening It Leaders Through Executive Coaching, Tonya S. Rivers Apr 2025

Unleashing Excellence: Strengthening It Leaders Through Executive Coaching, Tonya S. Rivers

Dissertations

This paper explores the impact of executive coaching on Information Technology (IT) leaders. Many organizations across different industries lack strong leadership, as exposed by COVID-19. Companies aim to keep exceptional leaders and establish upbeat workplaces to achieve success. Although previous research has examined leadership effectiveness, it is still unclear how best to manage employees' perceptions of effective leadership. The goal of this research is to provide new insights into what can improve perceptions of leadership effectiveness. I explored the role executive leadership coaching has on managers working in the Information Technology (IT) field. Current literature often mentions the need for …


A Relational Approach To Workplace Leadership, Nathaniel J. Hunt Apr 2025

A Relational Approach To Workplace Leadership, Nathaniel J. Hunt

M.S. in Leadership

This research project examines relational leadership as an ethical and strategic foundation for fostering effective workplaces. Motivated by the growing importance of human connection in leadership, the study integrates philosophical insights, particularly Emmanuel Levinas’s ethics of the face of the Other, with empirical evidence on workplace relationship-building. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining a structured survey of 32 professionals with thematic analysis of qualitative responses. Results confirmed that strategies such as encouraging knowledge-sharing and cultivating positive relational climates significantly enhance employee well-being, psychological safety, and organizational performance. Knowledge-sharing emerged as the most effective strategy, while relationship-building was found to be …


What Our Faces And Words Convey: An Ai Assisted Behavioral Approach To Emotional Intelligence Development In An Undergraduate Teams Course, Ryan Will, Brent Goertzen, Magdalene Moy Apr 2025

What Our Faces And Words Convey: An Ai Assisted Behavioral Approach To Emotional Intelligence Development In An Undergraduate Teams Course, Ryan Will, Brent Goertzen, Magdalene Moy

SACAD: Scholarly Activities

This poster explores the development of emotional intelligence in leadership and team dynamics, addressing limitations of traditional methods that rely on perceptual measures which serve as proxies for leader or follower behaviors (Banks et al., 2023). Participants analyze verbal and nonverbal communication patterns from team meetings throughout a semester-long project using content analysis and emotion-detection AI (Imentiv.ai), which leverages the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) (Rosenberg & Ekman, 2020). The intervention involves video recording three team meetings at key stages (early, mid-point, and end) to capture communication changes over the team lifecycle. Individualized feedback, combining verbal and nonverbal analysis, is …


Beyond Rules And Tools: Imagining A Design Approach To Metadata Management Training, Rebecca B. French Mar 2025

Beyond Rules And Tools: Imagining A Design Approach To Metadata Management Training, Rebecca B. French

Libraries

Professional development offerings for cataloging and metadata practitioners primarily focus on "rules and tools" - the standards, guidelines, and software applications commonly used in the field. These areas of knowledge are important and foundational, but professionals also need competence in synthesizing this information to solve metadata problems. In this presentation, I will explore design epistemology as a way of understanding metadata management. I will apply design concepts and methods to reimagine metadata training and provide suggestions for on-the-job training approaches that support the development of these harder-to-teach skills.


Guardians Or Bystanders? Examining School Shooting Responses In The Southern United States, Andre L. Tompkins Ed.D. Mar 2025

Guardians Or Bystanders? Examining School Shooting Responses In The Southern United States, Andre L. Tompkins Ed.D.

Journal of Educational Research and Practice

School shootings challenge educational safety, demanding effective leadership strategies. The Robb Elementary School shooting in Uvalde, Texas, which claimed the lives of 19 children and 2 teachers, heightened concerns about campus vulnerabilities, urging administrators to prioritize student protection. I performed a qualitative study interviewing principals, teachers, parents, and community leaders to examine their experiences addressing campus threats. The findings revealed three themes: (1) ineffective leadership affects campus safety, (2) prompt actions enhance trust in leadership, and (3) connecting with others enhances safety. In this study, I spotlight the crucial role that proactive leadership plays in building the coalitions needed to …


Integrating Three-Dimensional Mentoring With Workforce Development Training: A Collaborative Autoethnographic Examination Of Skill Transfer, Danny L. Darden, Ramiro Pesina Mar 2025

Integrating Three-Dimensional Mentoring With Workforce Development Training: A Collaborative Autoethnographic Examination Of Skill Transfer, Danny L. Darden, Ramiro Pesina

Human Resource Development Student Publications and Presentations

The increasing demand for skilled professionals in technical fields necessitates innovative educational approaches that integrate skill development with effective mentoring frameworks. This paper presents an autoethnographic analysis of skill transfer within workforce development environments, emphasizing a three-dimensional mentoring model encompassing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral mentoring dimensions. The study examines applications in command-line learning, gamified instruction, and safety training within virtual environments. The research highlights best practices in mentoring sustainability, the role of technology in reinforcing skill acquisition, and the ways in which learning-community engagement enhances workforce readiness. Additionally, this study integrates research on student engagement, community experiences, and retention strategies, …


Exploring Leadership In Physical Therapy: How Clarity, Connection, And Communication Influence Team Engagement, Burnout, And Achieving Organizational Objectives, Jason Collin Feb 2025

Exploring Leadership In Physical Therapy: How Clarity, Connection, And Communication Influence Team Engagement, Burnout, And Achieving Organizational Objectives, Jason Collin

Dissertations

Purpose: The purpose of this mixed methods study was to identify and describe how highly effective PT leaders use the three competencies of HPTs (clarity, connection, and communication) to increase engagement, prevent burnout, and achieve organizational objectives. The second purpose of this study was to determine the degree of importance that highly effective PT leaders perceive the three HPTE core competencies impact their leadership for creating HPTs.

Methodology: The mixed methods study identified and described eight PT leaders’ perceptions of how they use clarity, connection, and communication to build and sustain HPTs. PT leaders were selected through purposive and snowball …


Organizational Readiness As A Predictor Of Successful Trauma-Informed Change Within Child Welfare Agencies, Jennette Allen-Mccombs Feb 2025

Organizational Readiness As A Predictor Of Successful Trauma-Informed Change Within Child Welfare Agencies, Jennette Allen-Mccombs

Journal of Human Services: Training, Research, and Practice

The literature is replete with calls to reform the child welfare system (Dettlaff et al., 2020; Lindell et al., 2020; McTavish et al., 2018). Five child welfare organizations in one northeastern state in the U.S. participated in a pilot program to implement trauma-informed organizational change (TOC). This study explored the extent to which child welfare agencies demonstrated readiness to adopt change. The researcher used a directed content analysis approach to analyze previously collected staff meeting minutes, consultant notes, and other TOC-related documents collected during implementation. Findings support Armenakis et al.'s (2000) organizational readiness for change theory, which suggests that increased …


The Elephant (And Donkey) In The Room: The Effects Of Political Ideology On Diversity Training Effectiveness, Luke P. Kayga Feb 2025

The Elephant (And Donkey) In The Room: The Effects Of Political Ideology On Diversity Training Effectiveness, Luke P. Kayga

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

In recent years, the prevalence of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) trainings in organizations has grown significantly (Wang et al., 2024). DEI trainings are typically designed with the purpose of educating organizational members on DEI-related content and promoting feelings of inclusion in the workplace (Devine & Ash, 2022). Much like many other types of organizational training efforts, the effectiveness of DEI trainings is contingent on a variety of input factors. One such factor that has been extensively covered in the broader training literature but relatively understudied in DEI training research is trainee characteristics. Since DEI trainings are values-based, ethically prescriptive …


Navigating The Academic Terrain: Examining The Challenges And Success Factors Of Student Veterans In Higher Education Institutions, Katherine Reyes, Corey Idleburg Jan 2025

Navigating The Academic Terrain: Examining The Challenges And Success Factors Of Student Veterans In Higher Education Institutions, Katherine Reyes, Corey Idleburg

Education Division Scholarship

This study investigates the academic experiences of student veterans, addressing specific challenges they face in higher education. Using Schlossberg’s adult transition theory, it explores the effects of invisible barriers, enrollment trends, and institutional factors on veteran student success, leveraging the VA’s GI Bill Comparison tool to examine public versus private school support. Findings underscore the need for targeted resources, faculty training, and institutional awareness to foster a supportive and inclusive environment that enhances veteran students' academic success and sense of belonging.


The Laughing Buddha: The Education Of Compassionate Leaders Through Improvisational Play, Belinda Chiu Jan 2025

The Laughing Buddha: The Education Of Compassionate Leaders Through Improvisational Play, Belinda Chiu

Journal of Contemplative and Holistic Education

With an urgency to build a generative future, educational systems do not have a choice but to pay attention to how and what we train our future leaders. Yet there is still a gap as leadership studies are often relegated as a “soft” skill, rather than integrated as technical knowledge critical to the holistic effectiveness of a tertiary education. As a result, there is often a disconnect between students immersed in the idealistic bubble of the academy and graduates navigating life outside. Inquiry- and reflective-based methods of contemplative practices may be critical for leaders to avoid short-term, short-sighted decisions that …


Uncovering New Perspectives On Job Performance In Diverse Work Settings: A Job Demand-Resource Theoretical Approach, Myesha P. Holmes Jan 2025

Uncovering New Perspectives On Job Performance In Diverse Work Settings: A Job Demand-Resource Theoretical Approach, Myesha P. Holmes

Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

The aim of this study was to integrate the agility literature within the theoretical framework of the Job Demand-Resource (JD-R) Theory to examine and validate whether employee agility (job resources) and work overload (job demands) influence the relationship between subjective wellbeing, work engagement, and job performance among remote, hybrid, and onsite workers. Data was collected through a Qualtrics Online panel, utilizing five standardized and validated scales, from a sample of 504 full-time employed respondents across the United States. The data was analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results indicated a significant relationship between employee …


Becoming A Leader “On The Job”: An Exploratory Study Examining How Internal Interim Leaders Build Their Leadership Capacity While Nonprofit Executive Directors Are On Sabbatical, Michelle Schneider Jan 2025

Becoming A Leader “On The Job”: An Exploratory Study Examining How Internal Interim Leaders Build Their Leadership Capacity While Nonprofit Executive Directors Are On Sabbatical, Michelle Schneider

Dissertations

Nonprofit organizations have long underinvested in leadership development, potentially hindering their ability to fulfill their missions effectively. This study examined the use of nonprofit organization sabbaticals that give executive directors time away while building the leadership capabilities of the interim leader. This research explored the on-the-job leadership development of six individuals who served as interim leaders in southern California nonprofit organizations during their executive directors' participation in a 3-month, foundation-funded sabbatical program.

In this study, data were collected through in-depth interviews with interim leaders. A formative influences timeline technique was employed to center the participant's voice rather than the interviewer's …


The Jingle Jangle Fallacy Of Organizational Identification: An Exploration Of Its Meaning And Measurement Through Cluster And Meta-Analytic Methods, Leah Aiken Rossett Jan 2025

The Jingle Jangle Fallacy Of Organizational Identification: An Exploration Of Its Meaning And Measurement Through Cluster And Meta-Analytic Methods, Leah Aiken Rossett

Human Resource Development Theses and Dissertations

This dissertation investigates the conceptual and operational definitions of organizational identification (OID) across primary studies included in meta-analyses, with a focus on identifying the prevalence and impact of jingle and jangle fallacies. Using a systematic literature review, definitions were analyzed and coded. Cluster analysis revealed significant inconsistencies between how OID is defined and measured, exposing widespread jingle fallacies—where distinct constructs are labeled the same—and jangle fallacies—where similar constructs are labeled differently. Meta-analytic techniques further demonstrated that conceptual and operational clusters labeled as “OID” vary in their relationships with three key outcomes of interest: specifically, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover …


Growing Together: Strategies For Attracting And Retaining Community-Reflective Early Learning Professionals, Tonya Jo Coker Jan 2025

Growing Together: Strategies For Attracting And Retaining Community-Reflective Early Learning Professionals, Tonya Jo Coker

Educational Leadership Professional Doctorate Dissertations

The recruitment and retention of a diverse early learning workforce remains a critical challenge in special education. This study explores the multifaceted issues of workforce shortages, turnover rates, and the disparity between the demographics of educators and students in the Department of Early Learning within an education service district in Oregon. Through a detailed analysis of historical and current data, this study identifies systemic challenges contributing to the difficulty in attracting and retaining qualified staff, especially those who are representative of the communities they serve. Using improvement science as a methodological framework, the study tested change ideas focused on recruitment, …


The Lived Experiences Of Millennial Black Women Employed By Predominantly White Organizations: An Interpretative Phenomenological Exploration Of Identity Shifting, Natasha Ross Jan 2025

The Lived Experiences Of Millennial Black Women Employed By Predominantly White Organizations: An Interpretative Phenomenological Exploration Of Identity Shifting, Natasha Ross

Human Resource Development Theses and Dissertations

Identity shifting is “the intentional process of altering one’s behavior and language based on feelings of exclusion, expectations, and perceptions from others” (Dickens et al., 2018, p. 5). Previous identity shifting research shows that many have used it as a coping mechanism to escape racial and/or gender discrimination or a tool for success. However, there are negative consequences, such as poor mental health, that questions the necessity of using this. Millennial Black women were used as participants because they would offer unique experiences since they experience being at the intersection of being Black, female, and being born within the same …


How Do Workforce Adaptability And Reskilling Initiatives Drive Innovations: The Case Of Western Australian Construction Industry, Keyao Li, Mark A. Griffin, Mengting Xia Jan 2025

How Do Workforce Adaptability And Reskilling Initiatives Drive Innovations: The Case Of Western Australian Construction Industry, Keyao Li, Mark A. Griffin, Mengting Xia

Research outputs 2022 to 2026

Modern methods of construction (MMC) mark a shift from traditional practices to innovative workflows enabled by digital advancements. These changes demand a construction workforce that is adaptable, open to change, and committed to continuous improvement. This study explores how adaptability and continuous improvement contribute to achieving the desired outcomes of MMC. Specifically, it seeks to examine how these qualities are understood within the construction workforce and their practical implications. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-five construction experts in various roles and organisations. Interview results highlighted that fostering adaptive skills and targeted reskilling can maximise the benefits of MMC. Meanwhile, workforce …


Staff Matters: Why Are Our Employees Leaving? And How Do We Keep Them?, Jodi Schafer Sphr, Shrm-Scp Jan 2025

Staff Matters: Why Are Our Employees Leaving? And How Do We Keep Them?, Jodi Schafer Sphr, Shrm-Scp

The Journal of the Michigan Dental Association

The article addresses the challenges of staff attrition in dental practices, emphasizing its costly impact and the need to understand its causes. Common reasons for attrition include low compensation, high workloads, poor management practices, and lack of career development opportunities. Solutions involve gathering feedback through exit interviews, improving salaries and benefits, balancing workloads, enhancing management styles, and offering career growth. Proactive measures can help retain staff and create a stable, supportive work environment.


Relational Employability Matrix (Rem): A Guided Framework For Self-Reflection And Professional Growth, Ros Sambell Jan 2025

Relational Employability Matrix (Rem): A Guided Framework For Self-Reflection And Professional Growth, Ros Sambell

Research outputs 2022 to 2026

The Relational Employability Matrix (REM) is a practical tool for self-assessment and planning, grounded in the Relational Employability Framework (REF). The REF was developed and tested by Cook through a body of research that includes a narrative review, doctoral thesis, and applied studies (Cook, 2022; Cook, 2023a; Cook, 2023b; Cook, Doherty, & Wallace, 2024; Cook & Sambell, 2025). It brings together three interconnected dimensions of relational employability: Foundational Career Development and Identities, Interactions with Others, and Contributions to Local and Global Challenges. The REF works as a reflective, practice-focused guide for building these capabilities over time. The REM takes these …


The Perceptions Of Training And Development And Emotional Intelligence Among Virtual Leaders In Public And Private Institutions Of Higher Education, Ryan J. Trautweiler Jan 2025

The Perceptions Of Training And Development And Emotional Intelligence Among Virtual Leaders In Public And Private Institutions Of Higher Education, Ryan J. Trautweiler

Theses and Dissertations

This applied qualitative dissertation explored virtual leadership in higher education, examining virtual leaders' perceptions of training and development and emotional intelligence. Using an inductive research approach, data were collected through semistructured interviews and a questionnaire distributed via Google Forms to eight virtual leaders from public and private higher education institutions. Data were analyzed using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) and thematic analysis to identify key patterns and themes. Findings revealed distinctions between public and private institutions. In public institutions, training and development focused on faculty preparedness, resourcefulness in overcoming limitations, and its impact on student engagement. In private institutions, training was …


Building Bridges An Inclusive Practices Toolkit To Empower Neurodivergent Adults In The Workplace, Gloria Saldana Dec 2024

Building Bridges An Inclusive Practices Toolkit To Empower Neurodivergent Adults In The Workplace, Gloria Saldana

Student Theses and Dissertations

In this toolkit, designed for managers of neurodivergent employees, we will dig into the complexities of neurodivergence, specifically of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This toolkit aims to promote inclusivity within the workplace. We need to bridge the gap in improving neurodivergence education by understanding characteristics and communication differences, identifying cues, stigma, and consequences of actions ( e.g., bullying). Prioritizing each person's needs allows neurodivergent individuals and employers to discover natural talents and thrive within a diverse society. Through interactive sessions and practical exercises, managers will learn strategies for clear and concise communication, facilitating smoother collaboration, and initiating changes in the …


Empowering Tech Professionals: Mentorship And Interview Preparation In The Face Of Industry Layoffs, Sakhi Aggrawal Dec 2024

Empowering Tech Professionals: Mentorship And Interview Preparation In The Face Of Industry Layoffs, Sakhi Aggrawal

Purdue Journal of Service-Learning and International Engagement

In recent years, the Information Technology (IT) industry has witnessed significant turmoil, marked by waves of mass layoffs that have left numerous skilled professionals grappling with job loss and uncertainty. The year 2023 alone saw over 250,000 tech workers in U.S.-based companies lose their livelihoods due to corporate restructuring, with renowned giants like Amazon, Alphabet, Microsoft, and Meta being forced to trim their workforce. This unsettling trend highligts a pressing need to support those affected and empower them to regain stability in their careers.

Against this backdrop, I, an experienced technical program manager and software engineer with a background at …


The Abusive Effects Of Trauma On Leadership Styles And Performance, Robert Kraft Dec 2024

The Abusive Effects Of Trauma On Leadership Styles And Performance, Robert Kraft

Doctor of Ministry Major Applied Project

This Doctor of Ministry (DMin) Major Applied Project (MAP) investigates the relationship between toxic leadership in the military and trauma, particular how trauma can have negative, abusive effects on leadership style and performance. Most research in this area addresses trauma in postvention. This MAP addresses trauma’s potential effect on leadership style and explores the use of a pre-emptive, preventative training. Leadership theory is explored as well as trauma in the form of mental disorders, such as PTSD and narcissism. The author’s experience as an ordained pastor of The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod, serving as an Army Chaplain, revealed the value of …


The Leadership Identity Presented On Linkedin, Carl L. Tolbert Dec 2024

The Leadership Identity Presented On Linkedin, Carl L. Tolbert

The Journal of Values-Based Leadership

LinkedIn has evolved in a way similar to other social media platforms but is unique in that it focuses on professional networking and careers. Many professionals seek to showcase their leadership skills and philosophies as part of a publicly showcased online persona. This paper aimed to examine the posts specific to leadership and thematically investigate presentation strategies, motivation, and purposes behind the posts. The paper begins with a historical review from the inception of LinkedIn through pivotal milestones in the history of the company. Key concepts from the literature are then reviewed specific to social media use and motivations behind …


Evaluating The Perceived Benefits Of Education In Revenue Cycle Management And The Impact On Medical Claims Reimbursement, Jessica L. Miller Dec 2024

Evaluating The Perceived Benefits Of Education In Revenue Cycle Management And The Impact On Medical Claims Reimbursement, Jessica L. Miller

Student Dissertations

Efficient Revenue Cycle Management (RCM) is essential for healthcare organizations to ensure timely and accurate reimbursement for medical claims. The research problem was the significant inadequacies in RCM process in medical billing that has resulted in financial burdens imposed on providers, patients, and the organizations that provide medical services. There are clearly identified educational gaps in RCM that contribute to claim denials, delays, and revenue loss, underscoring the need for robust training programs. The purpose of this study was to explore the perceived impact of education in RCM on medical claim reimbursement outcomes within the U.S. healthcare system. The study …


Beyond Technical Skills: The Impact Of Emotional Intelligence On Project Management In Turkey, Dilsa Dogan Dec 2024

Beyond Technical Skills: The Impact Of Emotional Intelligence On Project Management In Turkey, Dilsa Dogan

Harrisburg University Dissertations and Theses

This study was conducted to examine the effects of emotional intelligence (EI) on project management in Turkey. It analyzed the impact of EI on communication skills and project outcomes. The analysis included project managers, team members, stakeholders, and faculty members from various sectors, reflecting their perspectives on EI.

The results demonstrated that EI plays a significant role in project management in Turkey, positively influencing communication skills and project outcomes. Additionally, the study statistically supported the effects of EI on project success criteria, including scope, time, cost, and quality.

The study emphasized that on-the-job training and mentoring programs are effective methods …


Impact Of Safety Training On Employee's Perceptions Of Organizational Safety Culture, Brooke Reid-Graves Dec 2024

Impact Of Safety Training On Employee's Perceptions Of Organizational Safety Culture, Brooke Reid-Graves

Dissertations

Workplace safety and well-being are vital for all workers, regardless of their profession (Young et al., 2022). Studies show that providing employees with training focused on recognizing hazards and implementing safety practices is essential for reducing occupational risks (Namian et al., 2020; Rose & Rae, 2017). Research underscores the importance of fostering a positive organizational safety culture for risk reduction (Berry et al., 2020; Downey, 2019). Understanding the impact of safety training on shaping an organization’s safety culture is key to promoting safe working environments (Mahjoub, 2013).

This study utilized the perspectives of high school staff regarding safety training and …


Exploring Mindfulness Within Leadership Development: A Phenomenological Study, Amardeep Kaur Dec 2024

Exploring Mindfulness Within Leadership Development: A Phenomenological Study, Amardeep Kaur

Dissertations and Doctoral Documents, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2023–

Leadership is a key to success in a complex, rapidly changing world. While scholarly and organizational interest in mindfulness is growing within the leadership and leadership development space, it remains largely unexplored from the leader's perspective. This phenomenological study explored how leaders perceived and described their mindfulness experiences within their leadership development. This exploratory research used a transcendental phenomenological approach (Moustakas, 1994) to capture their self-expression through in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Day's (2000) conceptual framework on leader and leadership development guided the study. The participants were recruited from organizations based in the U.S. that offer mindfulness-based programs, snowball sampling techniques, and …


Space Operations Education Research: Studying Undergraduate Experiences As Predictors Of Early Career Performance For Military Space Operations Officers, Keith Balts Dec 2024

Space Operations Education Research: Studying Undergraduate Experiences As Predictors Of Early Career Performance For Military Space Operations Officers, Keith Balts

All Dissertations

Undergraduate students who go on to operate space systems, e.g., satellites, launch systems, and ground-based systems, come from a diverse set of demographics and undergraduate experiences. The United States Space Force (USSF), and United States Air Force (USAF) before them, like many professions, have a demonstrated interest in who enters their ranks, but have had limited research available to them to inform their recruiting, selection, training, and early career development policies and processes.

This Profession-Based Education Research study, a term introduced here in contrast to Discipline-Based Education Research, focused on the military space operations profession. This study analyzed newly commissioned …


Employee Development And Employee Resilience In The Post-Covid-19 Workplace: A Quantitative Study Of High School Educators, Amy Keiser Maffei Dec 2024

Employee Development And Employee Resilience In The Post-Covid-19 Workplace: A Quantitative Study Of High School Educators, Amy Keiser Maffei

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

The problem addressed by this research is the need for protective factors to support teacher resilience. Organizations that fail to develop employee resilience risk failing to enjoy the positive outcomes associated with it. Research-based methods to improve resilience may benefit organizations, including school districts. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between employee development provided by a school district and the resilience of its high school teachers in the post-Covid-19, in-person workplace. Conservation of Resources theory served as the framework to guide the research. Study participants completed a questionnaire with Likert-style response options, with items to assess …